Runes
Runes are the letters of a series of related alphabets known as runic alphabets. Runes were used to write various Germanic languages before the adoption of the Latin alphabet and afterward for specialized purposes. In addition to representing a phonetic value (a phoneme), runes can also signify the concepts they are named after (ideograms).
Examples of this usage are often referred to by scholars as concept runes.
The Scandinavian variants are also known as futhark or fuþark (derived from the first six letters of the alphabet: F, U, Þ, A, R, and K); the Anglo-Saxon variant is futhorc or fuþorc (due to the phonetic shifts applied to the names of these six letters in Old English).
Runology is the scientific study of runic alphabets, inscriptions, runestones, and their history. Runology is a specialized branch of Germanic philology.
The earliest known runic inscriptions date to around 150 CE. These script forms were generally replaced by the Latin alphabet when the cultures that used runes were Christianized—around 700 CE in Central Europe and 1100 CE in Northern Europe. However, in Northern Europe, runes continued to be used for special purposes. Until the early 20th century, runes were used in rural Sweden for decorative purposes in Dalarna and on runic calendars.
The three most well-known runic alphabets are:
- The Elder Futhark (circa 150–800 CE),
- The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc (400–1100 CE),
- The Younger Futhark (800–1100 CE).
The Younger Futhark is further divided into:
- Long-branch runes (also known as Danish runes, though they were used in Norway, Sweden, and Friesland as well),
- Short-branch or Rök runes (also known as Swedish-Norwegian runes, though they were also used in Denmark),
- Staveless or Hälsinge runes.
The Younger Futhark later evolved into the Medieval runes (1100–1500) and the Dalecarlian runes (circa 1500–1800).
Historically, the runic alphabet is a derivative of the ancient Italic scripts of antiquity, with some innovations. Which variant of the Italic branch influenced the creation of the runes remains uncertain. Candidates include Raetic, Venetic, Etruscan, or Old Latin. All these scripts shared similar angular, epigraphically suitable letter forms that would come to characterize runes.
The process of script transmission is unknown. The oldest inscriptions are found in Denmark and northern Germany. The "West Germanic hypothesis" suggests transmission through Elbe Germanic groups, while the "Gothic hypothesis" proposes transmission via East Germanic expansion.
Name
Etymology
The name derives from a Proto-Germanic form reconstructed as rūnō, meaning "mystery, secret; secret conversation; rune." It is the source of:
- Gothic rūna (𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌰, "mystery, secret, counsel"),
- Old English rún ("whisper, mystery, secret, rune"),
- Old Saxon rūna ("secret counsel, confidential conversation"),
- Middle Dutch rūne ("id."),
- Old High German rūna ("mystery, secret"),
- Old Norse rún ("mystery, secret, rune").
The earliest Germanic epigraphic evidence includes the Old Norse rūnō (accusative singular), found on the Einang stone (350–400 CE) and the Noleby stone (450 CE).
The term is related to the Proto-Celtic rūna ("mystery, magic"), attested in:
- Old Irish rún ("mystery, secret"),
- Middle Welsh rin ("mystery, charm"),
- Middle Breton rin ("secret wisdom").
It may also appear in:
- Old Gaulish Cobrunus (< com-rūnos, "confident"; cf. Middle Welsh cyfrin, Middle Breton queffrin, Middle Irish comrún, "shared secret, confidence"),
- Sacruna (< sacro-runa, "sacred mystery"),
- Lepontic Runatis (< runo-ātis, "belonging to the mystery").
However, it remains difficult to determine whether these are true cognates (linguistic siblings of shared origin) or if the Proto-Germanic form reflects an early borrowing from Celtic.
Various connections to other Indo-European terms have been suggested (e.g., Sanskrit ráuti रौति "to roar," Latin rūmor "noise, rumor," or Ancient Greek eréō ἐρέω "to ask," ereunáō ἐρευνάω "to investigate"). However, linguist Ranko Matasović finds them difficult to justify on semantic or linguistic grounds.
Some scholars have speculated that the Germanic and Celtic words represent a shared religious term borrowed from an unknown non-Indo-European language.
Related Terms
In early Germanic languages, a rune could also be referred to as rūna-stabaz, a compound of rūnō and stabaz ('staff; letter'). This term is attested as rúna-stafr in Old Norse, rún-stæf in Old English, and rūn-stab in Old High German.
Other Germanic terms derived from rūnō include:
- runōn ('advisor'),
- rūnjan and ga-rūnjan ('secret, mystery'),
- raunō ('trial, investigation, experiment'),
- hugi-rūnō ('mystery of the mind, magical rune'),
- halja-rūnō ('witch, sorceress'; literally '[keeper of] Hel's mystery').
The root rūnō often appears in personal names, such as:
- Gothic Runilo (𐍂𐌿𐌽𐌹𐌻𐍉),
- Frankish Rúnfrid,
- Old Norse Alfrún, Dagrún, Guðrún, Sigrún, Ǫlrún,
- Old English Ælfrún, and
- Lombardic Goderūna.
The Finnish word runo, meaning "poem," is an early borrowing from Old Germanic and is the source of the term for rune, riimukirjain, meaning "carved letter."
The root is also found in Baltic languages, where Lithuanian runoti means both "to carve (with a knife)" and "to speak."
In Old English, rún survived into Early Modern English as roun, which is now obsolete. The modern English rune is a later form derived partially from Late Latin runa, Old Norse rún, and Danish rune.
History and Use
Runes were in use among the Germanic peoples from the 1st or 2nd century CE. Linguistically, this period corresponds to the late Common Germanic phase, with a continuum of dialects not yet clearly divided into the three branches of later centuries:
- North Germanic,
- West Germanic,
- East Germanic.
In preserved runic inscriptions, distinctions between long and short vowels are not represented, although such distinctions were phonologically present in the spoken languages of the time. Similarly, the Elder Futhark lacks characters for labiovelar sounds, though these were introduced in the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc and Gothic alphabets (e.g., as variants of p, such as peorð).
Origins
The formation of the Elder Futhark was completed by the early 5th century, with the Kylver Stone providing the earliest evidence of the Futhark order, including the p rune.
The Raetic alphabet from Bolzano is often cited as a potential origin for the runes, with only five Elder Futhark runes (ᛖ e, ᛇ ï, ᛃ j, ᛜ ŋ, ᛈ p) lacking counterparts in the Raetic script.
Scandinavian scholars generally prefer a derivation directly from the Latin alphabet over Raetic candidates.
The "North-Etruscan hypothesis" is supported by the inscription on the Negau Helmet (2nd century BCE). Written in a North-Etruscan alphabet, it contains a Germanic name, Harigast. Giuliano and Larissa Bonfante suggest the runes derive from a North Italian script, particularly Venetic. Since the Romans conquered Venetia after 200 BCE and the Latin alphabet became dominant, the Germanic peoples may have adopted the Venetic alphabet by the 3rd century BCE or earlier.
The angular shapes of the runes were typical of most contemporary alphabets designed for carving in wood or stone. Horizontal strokes are absent, as carving them along the grain would make the message less legible and more likely to split the wood.
This characteristic is shared by other alphabets, such as the early form of the Latin alphabet used for the Duenos inscription. However, it is not universal, especially in early runic inscriptions, which frequently exhibit variant rune forms, including horizontal strokes. Runic manuscripts (written rather than carved, such as the Codex Runicus) also include horizontal strokes.
Theories of Introduction
The "West Germanic hypothesis" speculates on the introduction of runes by West Germanic tribes. This hypothesis rests on the claim that the earliest inscriptions from the 2nd and 3rd centuries—found in bogs and graves around Jutland (the Vimose inscriptions)—feature word endings interpreted as Proto-Norse by Scandinavian scholars, but remain unresolved and have long been debated.
Inscriptions like wagnija, niþijo, and harija are thought to represent tribal names, tentatively identified as those of the Vangiones, Nithungi, and the Harii tribes, located in the Rhineland.
Since names ending in -io reflect Germanic morphology corresponding to the Latin suffix -ius, and the suffix -inius is mirrored by Germanic -inio-, the problematic -ijo ending in male Proto-Norse could be explained by Roman (Rhineland) influences. Similarly, the "awkward" ending -a in laguþewa might suggest the name is West Germanic.
For the early runic period, it is generally assumed that differences between Germanic languages were minimal. Another theory posits a Northwest Germanic unity predating the emergence of Proto-Norse around the 5th century CE.
An alternative explanation for the impossibility of categorizing the earliest inscriptions as either North or West Germanic comes from È. A. Makaev, who proposed a "special runic koiné"—an early "literary Germanic" used by the late Germanic speech community after the Gothic divergence (2nd–5th century CE). Spoken dialects, however, might have already been more diverse.
Early Inscriptions
Runic inscriptions from the 400-year period between 150 and 550 CE are classified as "Period I." These inscriptions are generally written in the Elder Futhark, though the letter shapes and use of bind runes are far from uniform. Notably, the j, s, and ŋ runes underwent significant changes, while others, such as p and ï, are not attested until the first complete Futhark row appears on the Kylver Stone (ca. 400 CE).
Artifacts bearing runic markings, such as spearheads or shield mounts, have been found and dated to as early as 200 CE. These artifacts have been uncovered throughout Northern Europe, including Schleswig (Northern Germany), Funen, Zealand, Jutland (Denmark), and Scania (Sweden). Earlier but less reliable finds have been made in Meldorf, Süderdithmarschen, Northern Germany, such as brooches and combs from graves, notably the Meldorf brooch, which may bear the earliest markings resembling runic inscriptions.
Magical or Divinatory Use
In stanza 157 of the Hávamál, runes are attributed the power to bring the dead back to life. In this stanza, Odin recounts a spell:
Old Norse:
Þat kann ek it tolfta,
ef ek sé á tré uppi
váfa virgilná,:
svá ek ríst ok í rúnum fák,
at sá gengr gumi
ok mælir við mik.
English translation:
I know the twelfth spell,
if I see a hanging corpse
swinging in a noose on a tree,
I carve and colour the runes
so the man walks
and speaks with me.
The earliest rune-inscribed artifacts often display the name of the craftsman or owner, though some remain linguistic puzzles. It is possible that early runes were less a straightforward writing system and more magical symbols used in spells. Although some claim runes were used for divination, no direct evidence supports this. The term "rune" itself, meaning "secret" or "something hidden," suggests that knowledge of runes was originally considered esoteric or limited to an elite group.
The Björketorp Runestone (6th century) warns against using the word "rune" in either sense:
Runic inscription:
Haidzruno runu, falahak haidera, ginnarunaz. Arageu haeramalausz uti az. Weladaude, sa'z þat barutz. Uþarba spa.
Translation:
I, the master of the runes(?), conceal here runes of power. Unceasing malice, treacherous death is fated for the one who breaks this (monument). I foresee ruin / prophecy of destruction.
A similar curse and usage of the term "rune" appear on the Stentoften Runestone. Some inscriptions, such as that on the Franks Casket (700 CE), hint at a medieval belief in the magical significance of runes.
Magical terms like auja, laþu, laukaz, and especially alu frequently appear in Elder Futhark inscriptions from the Migration Period. Scholars have speculated on their possible meanings and functions. Rhyming sequences, such as salusalu and luwatuwa, found on early bracteates, might also have had magical significance. An inscription on the Gummarp Runestone (500–700 CE) cryptically describes the use of three rune letters followed by three repetitions of the f rune from the Elder Futhark.
Runes and Divination
Definitive evidence of "runic oracles" has been elusive. While Norse literature is rich in references to runes, it offers no explicit instructions for divination. There are at least three historical accounts of divination practices that might involve runes, albeit with vague descriptions:
- Tacitus' Germania (1st century CE): Tacitus describes "signs" selected in groups of three from sticks cut from a "nut-bearing tree." However, runes were likely not in use during his time.
- Snorri Sturluson's Ynglinga Saga (13th century): The saga recounts King Granmar of Södermanland traveling to Uppsala for a blót (sacrifice), where "chips" fell in a way that predicted his short life. These "chips" (likely blótspánn) were marked, possibly with sacrificial blood, shaken, and cast like dice to determine their meaning.
- Rimbert's Vita Ansgari (9th century): This text includes three accounts of what some interpret as runic divination. In one, a rebellious Swedish king, Anund Uppsale, brings a Danish fleet to Birka but changes his mind after the Danes draw "lots" predicting misfortune for an attack on Birka, advising them to attack a Slavic city instead. The "lots" are likely hlautlein (lot-twigs) used similarly to blótspánn.
Although comprehensive knowledge of historical rune use is lacking, modern authors have extrapolated divination systems loosely based on reconstructed rune names and external influences.
Runes in Magic
Recent studies suggest that runes were used to create magical objects, such as amulets, but not inherently magical as a script. Their application appears to align with practices in other writing systems, such as Latin and Greek. For example, inscriptions like auja (possibly meaning "luck"), laukaz ("leek" as a magical herb), or alu (possibly "protection" or "ale") suggest ritual or protective purposes rather than divination.
Medieval Use of Runes
As Proto-Germanic evolved into its later linguistic groups, the words associated with runes and the sounds they represented began to diverge. Each culture adapted the runic alphabet to these changes, creating new runes, renaming or rearranging existing ones, or ceasing the use of outdated runes altogether. For example, the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc introduced unique runes to represent diphthongs common in the Old English dialect.
Later rune finds include monuments such as runestones, often bearing commemorative inscriptions about deceased individuals or significant deeds. For a long time, scholars assumed such grand inscriptions represented the primary use of runes and that they were crafted by a specialized social class of rune carvers.
However, the Bryggen inscriptions discovered in Bergen in the mid-1950s challenged this view. Around 670 inscriptions were found on wood and bone sticks of various sizes, containing everyday messages. These ranged from name tags, prayers (often in Latin), personal notes, business correspondence, and expressions of affection to vulgar and sometimes obscene phrases.
This discovery led to the general understanding that runes, at least in later periods, were widely used as a common writing system.
Runic Calendars
In the late medieval period, runes were also used in runic calendars (sometimes called runestaves, prims, or Scandinavian calendars) in Sweden and Estonia. Some North American runic inscriptions are controversial; most have been dated to modern times.
Runes in Eddic Poetry
In Norse mythology, the runic alphabet is considered of divine origin (Old Norse: reginkunnr). This belief is attested on runestones, such as the Noleby Runestone (circa 600 CE), which reads:
"Runo fahi raginakundo toj[e'k]a..."
("I prepare the appropriate divine rune...").
The Sparlösa Runestone (9th century CE) contains the phrase:
"Ok rað runaʀ þaʀ rægi[n]kundu..."
("And interpret the runes of divine origin...").
In the Poetic Edda, stanza 80 of the Hávamál describes the runes as reginkunnr:
Old Norse:
Þat er þá reynt,
er þú at rúnum spyrr
inum reginkunnum,
þeim er gerðu ginnregin
ok fáði fimbulþulr,
þá hefir hann bazt, ef hann þegir.
Translation:
That is now proven,
what you ask of the runes,
of the mighty renowned ones,
those made by the great gods,
and stained by the mighty sage,
that it is best if he is silent.
Odin as the Creator of Runes
The Hávamál explains that Odin himself was the originator of the runes, acquiring them through a self-sacrificial ordeal. Stanza 138 recounts Odin hanging from a tree, wounded by a spear, and dedicated to himself:
Old Norse:
Veit ek at ek hekk vindga meiði á
netr allar nío,
geiri vndaþr ok gefinn Óðni,
sjálfr sjálfom mér,
á þeim meiði, er mangi veit,
hvers hann af rótom renn.
Translation:
I know that I hung on a windy tree
nine long nights,
wounded with a spear and dedicated to Odin,
myself to myself,
on that tree of which no man knows
from what roots it rises.
Odin continues in stanza 139, describing his discovery of the runes:
Old Norse:
Við hleifi mik seldo ne við hornigi,
nysta ek niðr,
nam ek upp rúnar,
opandi nam,
fell ek aptr þaðan.
Translation:
They gave me neither bread nor a drink from a horn,
I looked down;
I took up the runes,
screaming I took them,
then I fell back from there.
Rig's Tale and the Spread of Runes
Another mythological origin for the runes is recounted in the Rígsþula from the Poetic Edda. The tale describes how Ríg (identified as Heimdall in the prologue) fathered three sons—Thrall (slave), Churl (freeman), and Jarl (noble)—with human women. These sons became the progenitors of the three classes of society.
When Jarl reached an age where he began wielding weapons and displaying noble traits, Ríg returned to claim him as his son and taught him the runes. This myth establishes the association of runes with the noble class and wisdom.
Runic Alphabets
Elder Futhark (2nd to 8th Century)
The Elder Futhark was used to write Proto-Norse and consists of 24 runes often arranged in three groups of eight, known as ætts (Old Norse for "clan" or "group"). The earliest known sequential listing of all 24 runes is from around 400 CE on the Kylver Stone in Gotland, Sweden.
Each rune likely had a name chosen to represent the sound of the rune itself. These names are not directly attested for the Elder Futhark but are reconstructed in Proto-Germanic based on names from later runic alphabets, attested in rune poems and related names of the Gothic alphabet. For instance, the letter /a/ was named after the rune Ansuz.
The 24 runes of the Elder Futhark are as follows:
| Rune | UCS | Transliteration | IPA | Proto-Germanic Name | Meaning |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| ᚠ | f | F | /f/ | fehu | Cattle, wealth |
| ᚢ | u | U | /u(ː)/ | ūruz | Aurochs |
| ᚦ | þ | þ | /θ/, /ð/ | þurisaz | Giant (or þunraz, Thor) |
| ᚨ | a | A | /a(ː)/ | ansuz | God |
| ᚱ | r | R | /r/ | raidō | Journey, ride |
| ᚲ | k | K | /k/ | kaunan | Ulcer (or kenaz, torch) |
| ᚷ | g | G | /g/ | gebō | Gift |
| ᚹ | w | W | /w/ | wunjō | Joy |
| ᚺᚻ | h | H | /h/ | hagalaz | Hail (precipitation) |
| ᚾ | n | N | /n/ | naudiz | Need |
| ᛁ | i | I | /i(:)/ | īsaz | Ice |
| ᛃ | j | J | /j/ | jēra | Year, harvest |
| ᛇ | ï | ï (æ) | /æː/ | ī(h)waz | Yew tree |
| ᛈ | p | P | /p/ | perþ | Unknown; possibly "pear tree" |
| ᛉ | z | Z | /z/ | algiz | Elk or protection |
| ᛋᛊ | s | S | /s/ | sōwilō | Sun |
| ᛏ | t | T | /t/ | tīwaz | God Tiwaz (Tyr) |
| ᛒ | b | B | /b/ | berkanan | Birch tree |
| ᛖ | e | E | /e(:)/ | ehwaz | Horse |
| ᛗ | m | M | /m/ | mannaz | Man |
| ᛚ | l | L | /l/ | laguz | Water, lake, or leek |
| ᛜ | ŋ | ŋ | /ŋ/ | ingwaz | God Ingwaz |
| ᛟ | o | O | /o(:)/ | ōþila/ōþala | Heritage, inheritance |
| ᛞ | d | D | /d/ | dagaz | Day |
Anglo-Saxon Runes (5th to 11th Century)
The Anglo-Saxon Futhorc was an expanded alphabet with 29 runes, later extended to 33. It was likely used starting in the 5th century.
Origins
Two competing theories exist about the origins of the Futhorc:
- It developed in Frisia and was later brought to England.
- Scandinavian settlers introduced runes to England, where the Futhorc was modified and later exported to Frisia.
Notable Futhorc Inscriptions
Examples include:
- The Thames Scramasax
- The Vienna Codex
- The Cotton Otho B.x (Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem)
- The Ruthwell Cross
The Anglo-Saxon Rune Poem lists the following runes and their names:
| Rune | Name | Rune | Name |
|---|---|---|---|
| ᚠ | feoh | ᛝ | ing |
| ᚢ | ur | ᛟ | œthel |
| ᚦ | þorn | ᛞ | dæg |
| ᚩ | os | ᚪ | ac |
| ᚱ | rad | ᚫ | æsc |
| ᚳ | cen | ᚣ | yr |
| ᚷ | gyfu | ᛡ | ior |
| ᚹ | ƿynn | ᛠ | ear |
| ᚻ | hægl | ᛢ | cweorð |
| ᚾ | nyd | ᛣ | calc |
| ᛁ | is | ᚸ | gar |
| ᛄ | ger | ᛥ | stan |
| ᛇ | eoh | ||
| ᛈ | peorð | ||
| ᛉ | eolh | ||
| ᛋ | sigel | ||
| ᛏ | tir | ||
| ᛒ | beorc | ||
| ᛖ | eh | ||
| ᛗ | mann | ||
| ᛚ | lagu |
Some of these runes—like cweorð (ᛢ), calc (ᛣ), gar (ᚸ), and stan (ᛥ)—are only attested in manuscripts. Their specific use or phonetic value may have been regional or contextual.
"Marcomannic Runes" (8th to 9th Century)
A runic alphabet, comprising a blend of Elder Futhark and Anglo-Saxon Futhorc, is described in a treatise titled De Inventione Litterarum, attributed to Hrabanus Maurus. This text is preserved in manuscripts dating to the 8th and 9th centuries, primarily from the southern regions of the Carolingian Empire (Alemannia and Bavaria).
The manuscript assigns these runes to the Marcomanni (quos nos Nordmannos vocamus, "whom we call Norsemen"). Consequently, this alphabet is traditionally referred to as "Marcomannic Runes." However, it has no actual connection to the Marcomanni tribe. Instead, it represents an effort by Carolingian scholars to create runic equivalents for all the letters of the Latin alphabet.
Wilhelm Grimm discussed these runes in 1821.
Younger Futhark (9th to 11th Century)
The Scandinavian Futhark, or Younger Futhark, is a reduced form of the Elder Futhark, comprising only 16 characters. This reduction aligns with phonetic changes during the evolution from Proto-Norse to Old Norse. The Younger Futhark is found in Scandinavia and Viking settlements abroad, where it was likely used from the 9th century onward.
Two main versions of the Younger Futhark exist: long-branch runes (Danish) and short-twig runes (Swedish and Norwegian). The distinction between the two versions remains debated. It is generally believed that the difference was functional: long-branch runes were used for inscriptions on stone, while short-twig runes were employed for everyday purposes, such as private or official messages carved on wood.
Medieval Runes (12th to 15th Century)
During the Middle Ages, the Younger Futhark in Scandinavia was expanded to include a rune for each phoneme of the Old Norse language. Dotted variants of voiceless characters were introduced to represent their corresponding voiced consonants, and vice versa. Additionally, several new runes were created for vowel sounds.
Inscriptions in medieval Scandinavian runes exhibit a significant variety of rune shapes, and certain letters, such as s, c, and z, were often used interchangeably.
Medieval runes were in use until the 15th century. The majority of surviving Norwegian rune inscriptions are written in medieval runes. Since the 1950s, more than 600 inscriptions using these runes have been discovered in Bergen, most of them on wooden sticks (commonly referred to as the Bryggen inscriptions). These findings indicate that runes continued to be used alongside the Latin alphabet for several centuries. In fact, some medieval rune inscriptions are written in Latin.
Dalecarlian Runes (16th to 19th Century)
According to Carl-Gustav Werner, a mixture of runes and Latin letters developed in the remote Swedish province of Dalarna. The Dalecarlian runes came into use in the early 16th century and persisted until the 20th century. Whether their use represented an unbroken tradition or if people in the 19th and 20th centuries learned them from related books is debated. This character set was primarily used for transcribing Elfdalian, a local dialect.
Differences from the Roman Script
Although the Roman script eventually replaced runes in most contexts, it differed significantly from runic writing. The runologist Victoria Symons notes key distinctions between Anglo-Saxon runes and the Roman script that succeeded them:
The Fuþorc differs from the Roman alphabet not only in the appearance and order of its letters but also in that runic letters, unlike their Roman counterparts, were often associated not just with sound values but also with names. These names were typically nouns that almost always began with the sound represented by the corresponding letter... The fact that each rune represents both a sound value and a word gives this script a multivalent quality that sets it further apart from Roman writing. A Latin letter simply stands for its sound value. When used, for example, for pagination, these letters may take on additional meaning, but this is limited to the context of a single manuscript. By contrast, runic letters are inherently multivalent; they can simultaneously represent several different pieces of information and often do. Writers and scribes who incorporated them into their manuscripts frequently capitalized on this aspect of runic letters.
Use as Ideograms ("Begriffsrunen")
In addition to their historical use as letters in runic alphabets, runes were sometimes used to represent their names (as ideograms). Such instances are often referred to with the modern German loanword Begriffsrunen (singular Begriffsrune). The criteria for identifying runes as ideograms and the frequency of their use by ancient rune carvers remain subjects of scholarly debate. The topic of Begriffsrunen has led to significant discussion among runologists. Runologist Klaus Düwel has proposed a two-point criterion for identifying runes as ideograms: a graphic argument and a semantic argument.
Academic Study
The modern study of runes began during the Renaissance with Johannes Bureus (1568–1652). Bureus viewed runes as sacred or magical in a kabbalistic sense. The study of runes was continued by Olof Rudbeck Sr. (1630–1702) and presented in his collection Atlantica. Anders Celsius (1701–1744) further expanded rune scholarship, traveling throughout Sweden to study runstenar (rune stones). Since the "golden age of philology" in the 19th century, runology has become a specialized branch of Germanic linguistics.
Preserved Inscriptions
The largest group of preserved runic inscriptions are rune stones from the Viking Age, written in the Younger Futhark and frequently found in Denmark and Sweden. Another significant group consists of medieval runes, often discovered on small objects, especially wooden sticks. The Bryggen inscriptions, found in Bergen, represent the highest concentration of runic inscriptions, totaling over 650 pieces. About 350 Elder Futhark inscriptions have been found, approximately 260 of which come from Scandinavia, with about half appearing on bracteates. There are around 100 Anglo-Saxon Futhark inscriptions.
Modern Use
Runes in Esotericism
Germanic Mysticism and Nazi Germany
Runes played a role in Germanic mysticism, particularly in the work of Guido von List, an Austrian occultist, mystic, and völkisch writer of the late 19th and early 20th centuries. In 1908, List published Das Geheimnis der Runen (The Secret of the Runes), describing a set of 18 so-called "Armanen runes," derived from the Younger Futhark and additional runes introduced by List himself. He claimed to have received these runes in a state of temporary blindness following cataract surgery in 1902.
Lists' "Armanen runes" and the derivative "Wiligut runes" created by Karl Maria Wiligut played a limited role in Nazi symbolism. This fascination with runes was primarily shared by Heinrich Himmler and had little support from other Nazi leaders. Consequently, runes are mostly associated with the Schutzstaffel (SS) under Himmler's direction. Wiligut is credited with designing the SS honour ring, which prominently features several "Wiligut runes."
Modern Neopaganism and Esotericism
Runes remain popular in Germanic neopaganism, and to a lesser extent, in other forms of neopaganism and New Age esotericism. Various systems of runic divination have been published since the 1980s, particularly by authors like Ralph Blum (1982), Stephen Flowers (from 1984), Stephan Grundy (1990), and Nigel Pennick (1995).
The Uthark theory, initially proposed as a scholarly hypothesis by Sigurd Agrell in 1932, gained popularity in modern occultism through the work of Thomas Karlsson in 2002. Karlsson described the "Uthark" rune sequence as the "dark side of the runes."
Bluetooth
The Bluetooth logo combines two runes from the Younger Futhark: ᚼ (hagall) and ᛒ (bjarkan), which correspond to the letters H and B, representing the initials of Harald Blåtand ("Bluetooth" in English), a Viking-era king of Denmark.
J. R. R. Tolkien and Contemporary Fiction
In J. R. R. Tolkien's novel The Hobbit (1937), Anglo-Saxon runes are used on a map and the book's title page to emphasize their connection to the dwarves. While Tolkien initially employed runes in early drafts of The Lord of the Rings, he later replaced them with the Cirth alphabet, which he invented for the dwarven language Khuzdul. Inspired by Tolkien, historical and fictional runes frequently appear in modern popular culture, especially in fantasy literature and other media like video games (e.g., the 1992 video game Heimdall used runes as "magical symbols") and tabletop role-playing games like The Fantasy Trip by Metagaming, which featured runic ciphers for clues and jokes.
Unicode
Runic alphabets were incorporated into the Unicode Standard in September 1999 with the release of Version 3.0.
The Unicode block for runic alphabets, U+16A0–U+16FF, encodes letters from the Elder Futhark, Anglo-Frisian runes, and both long- and short-branch variants of the Younger Futhark (but not the staveless variants).