Harald Hardrada

Harald Hardrada

Harald Sigurdsson, also known as Harald of Norway (Old Norse: Haraldr Sigurðarson; c. 1015 – 25 September 1066) and nicknamed Hardrada (harðráði; modern Norwegian: Hardråde, roughly translated as "stern counsel" or "hard ruler") in the sagas, was King of Norway (as Harald III) from 1046 to 1066. He also unsuccessfully claimed the Danish throne until 1064 and the English throne in 1066. Before becoming king, Harald spent approximately fifteen years in exile as a mercenary and military commander in Kievan Rus' and the Varangian Guard of the Byzantine Empire.

At the age of fifteen, in 1030, Harald fought alongside his half-brother Olaf Haraldsson (later Saint Olaf) in the Battle of Stiklestad. Olaf attempted to reclaim the Norwegian throne, which he had lost two years earlier to King Cnut the Great of Denmark. In the battle, Olaf and Harald were defeated by Cnut's forces, and Harald was forced into exile in Kievan Rus' (referred to as Garðaríki in the sagas). Harald spent time serving in the army of Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise and eventually rose to the rank of captain before continuing to Constantinople around 1034 with his companions. In Constantinople, Harald quickly became the commander of the Byzantine Varangian Guard, serving in the Mediterranean, Asia Minor, Sicily, possibly the Holy Land, Bulgaria, and Constantinople itself, where he became embroiled in the emperor's dynastic disputes. During his time in the Byzantine Empire, Harald accumulated considerable wealth, which he sent for safekeeping to Yaroslav in Kievan Rus'. Eventually, in 1042, Harald left the Byzantine Empire and returned to Kievan Rus' to prepare for his campaign to reclaim the Norwegian throne. Harald may have been unaware that during his absence, the Norwegian throne had been restored to Olaf's illegitimate son, Magnus the Good, by the Danes.

In 1046, Harald allied with Magnus's rival in Denmark (Magnus had also become King of Denmark), Sweyn II of Denmark, and began raiding along the Danish coast. Magnus, unwilling to fight his uncle, agreed to share the kingship with Harald on the condition that Harald share his wealth. This joint rule ended abruptly the following year when Magnus died, leaving Harald as the sole ruler of Norway. Domestically, Harald suppressed local and regional opposition and initiated the territorial unification of Norway under a centralised government. Harald’s reign was likely marked by relative peace and stability, during which he implemented a functioning coin economy and foreign trade. He likely sought to re-establish Cnut's "North Sea Empire" and also laid claim to the Danish throne. Until 1064, Harald spent nearly every year raiding the Danish coast and fighting his former ally, Sweyn. Despite the success of his campaigns, Harald never managed to conquer Denmark.

Shortly after abandoning his claim to Denmark, Harald received the loyalty of Tostig Godwinson, the former Earl of Northumbria and brother of the newly crowned (but short-reigning) English King Harold Godwinson (also known as Harold of Wessex). Tostig invited Harald to claim the English throne. Harald accepted and invaded northern England in September 1066 with 10,000 men and 300 longships. He raided the coast and defeated the local English forces of Northumbria and Mercia in the Battle of Fulford near York on 20 September 1066. However, despite his initial success, Harald was defeated and killed in a surprise attack by Harold Godwinson's troops at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066, where almost his entire army was annihilated. Modern historians often regard Harald's death, which ended his invasion, as marking the conclusion of the Viking Age.

 

Epithets
Harald's most famous epithet is the Old Norse harðráði, which has been variously translated as "hard in taking," "tyrannical," "tyrant," "hard ruler," "ruthless," "wild in taking," "hard," and "stern." Judith Jesch has advocated for "stern" as the best translation, while Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes prefer "resolute." Harðráði has traditionally been Anglicised as "Hardrada," although Judith Jesch has characterised this form as "a bastard Anglicisation of the original epithet in an incorrect case." This epithet dominates in the later Icelandic saga tradition.

In several independent sources associated with the British Isles, which are mostly older than the Icelandic sagas, Harald is instead given an epithet derived from the Old Norse hárfagri (literally "fair-haired"). These sources include:

  • Manuscript D of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ("Harold Harfagera," under the year 1066) and related accounts by Orderic Vitalis ("Harafagh," concerning events in 1066), John of Worcester ("Harvagra," s.a. 1066 and 1098), and William of Malmesbury (Gesta regum Anglorum, "Harvagre," about 1066).
  • Marianus Scotus of Mainz ("Arbach," died 1082/1083).
  • The Life of Gruffydd ap Cynan ("Haralld Harfagyr," late 12th century).

In the Icelandic sagas, the name Harald Fairhair is instead associated with an earlier Norwegian king, and 20th-century historians believed that the name was mistakenly attributed to Harald Hardrada by insular historians. Recognising the independence of some insular sources, historians have since preferred the idea that Harald Hardrada was widely known as Harald Fairhair and now even doubt whether the earlier Harald Fairhair existed in a form resembling the later saga accounts.

Sverrir Jakobsson has suggested that "Fairhair" might have been "the name under which King Harald wanted to be known. It must have been his opponents who gave him the epithet 'stern' (ON. harðráði), by which he is commonly known in the Old Norse king sagas of the 13th century."

Early Life
Harald was born in 1015 (or possibly 1016) in Ringerike, Norway, the son of Åsta Gudbrandsdatter and her second husband, Sigurd Syr. Sigurd was a petty king of Ringerike and one of the strongest and wealthiest chieftains in the highlands. Through his mother Åsta, Harald was the youngest of three half-brothers of King Olaf II of Norway (later Saint Olaf). In his youth, Harald displayed traits of a typical rebel with great ambitions, admiring Olaf as his role model. This set him apart from his two older brothers, who were more grounded and primarily focused on maintaining the family estate.

In the Icelandic sagas, particularly in Snorri Sturluson's Heimskringla, it is claimed that Sigurd, like Olaf's father, was a great-grandson of King Harald Fairhair in the male line. Most modern scholars believe that the ancestry attributed to Harald Hardrada's father, along with other parts of the Fairhair genealogy, are more likely inventions reflecting the political and social expectations of the authors’ time (about two centuries after Harald Hardrada’s lifetime) than historical reality. Harald Hardrada's alleged descent from Harald Fairhair is not mentioned and played no role during his lifetime, which is curious as it would have been a significant legitimisation of his claim to the Norwegian throne.

After an uprising in 1028, Harald's brother Olaf was forced into exile, only to return to Norway in early 1030. Upon hearing of Olaf's planned return, Harald gathered 600 men from the highlands to join Olaf and his followers upon their arrival in eastern Norway. After a warm reception, Olaf assembled an army and eventually fought in the Battle of Stiklestad on 29 July 1030, where Harald sided with his brother. The battle was part of an effort to restore Olaf to the Norwegian throne, which had been seized by King Cnut the Great of Denmark. The battle ended in defeat for the brothers at the hands of Norwegian supporters of Cnut, with Olaf killed and Harald severely wounded. Nevertheless, Harald was reputed to have demonstrated great military talent during the battle.

 

Exile in the East

In Kievan Rus'

After the defeat at the Battle of Stiklestad, Harald managed to escape with the help of Rögnvald Brusason (later Earl of Orkney) to a remote farm in eastern Norway. There, he stayed for some time to recover from his wounds before traveling, possibly a month later, northward over the mountains to Sweden. A year after the battle, Harald arrived in Kievan Rus' (referred to in the sagas as Garðaríki or Svíþjóð hin mikla). He likely spent part of his time in the town of Staraya Ladoga (Aldeigjuborg), where he arrived in early 1031. Harald and his men were welcomed by Grand Prince Yaroslav the Wise, whose wife, Ingegerd, was distantly related to Harald. Needing skilled military leaders, Yaroslav recognised Harald's potential and appointed him as a captain of his troops.

Harald's brother Olaf Haraldsson had also taken refuge with Yaroslav after the uprising in 1028, and Morkinskinna suggests that Yaroslav's primary reason for receiving Harald was his relation to Olaf. Harald joined Yaroslav's campaign against the Poles in 1031 and may have also fought against other Kievan enemies and rivals of the 1030s, such as the Chuds in Estonia, the Byzantines, the Pechenegs, and other nomadic steppe peoples.

In Byzantine Service

After spending several years in Kievan Rus', Harald and his force of about 500 men moved south to Constantinople (Miklagard), the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire (later known as the Byzantine Empire), likely in 1033 or 1034. There, they joined the Varangian Guard. While the Flateyjarbók claims Harald initially tried to conceal his royal identity, most sources agree that Harald and his men's reputation was already well known in the East by this time.

Although the Varangian Guard primarily served as the emperor’s bodyguard, Harald fought on nearly all borders of the empire. He first participated in campaigns against Arab pirates in the Mediterranean and then against towns in inland Asia Minor/Anatolia that had supported the pirates. According to Snorri Sturluson, Harald had already become the "leader of all the Varangians" by this point. By 1035, the Byzantines had pushed the Arabs out of Asia Minor to the east and southeast, and Harald participated in campaigns extending as far as the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia. According to his skald (poet) Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, as preserved in the sagas, Harald played a role in the conquest of 80 Arab strongholds—a figure that historians Sigfus Blöndal and Benedikt Benedikz do not significantly dispute. While he likely did not command his own army as claimed in the sagas, Harald and the Varangians may have occasionally been deployed for specific conquests.

During the first four years of Emperor Michael IV's reign, Harald likely participated in campaigns against the Pechenegs. According to the sagas, Harald also journeyed to Jerusalem and fought battles in the area. Whether this journey was military or peaceful depends on whether it occurred before or after the 1036 peace treaty between Michael IV and the Muslim Fatimid Caliph al-Mustansir Billah (in reality, his mother, a Byzantine Christian, who acted as regent). Modern historians speculate that Harald might have joined a group escorting pilgrims to Jerusalem following the peace treaty, possibly including members of the imperial family. This could also have provided Harald opportunities to fight bandits targeting Christian pilgrims.

In 1038, Harald joined the Byzantines in their campaign to retake Sicily from the Muslim Saracens, who had established the Emirate of Sicily. He fought alongside the Byzantine general George Maniakes (Gyrge in the sagas) and Norman mercenaries such as William Iron Arm. According to Snorri Sturluson, Harald captured four towns in Sicily. In 1041, after the Sicilian campaign ended, Harald fought in southern Italy against a Lombard-Norman uprising. He led the Varangian Guard in several battles alongside the Catepan of Italy, Michael Dokeianos, initially with success. However, the Normans, led by their former ally William Iron Arm, defeated the Byzantines in the Battle of Olivento in March and the Battle of Montemaggiore in May. After this defeat, Harald and the Varangian Guard were recalled to Constantinople following Maniakes’ imprisonment and the emergence of other pressing issues.

Later that year, Harald and the Varangians were sent to the southeastern European border in Bulgaria, where they arrived in late 1041. There, Harald fought in Emperor Michael IV’s army in the Battle of Ostrovo during the campaign to suppress the Bulgarian uprising led by Peter Delyan. Harald earned the epithet "Bolgara brennir" ("Burner of the Bulgars") from his skald for his actions during the campaign.

Honours and Imprisonment

Harald was unaffected by Maniakes’ conflict with Emperor Michael IV and was honoured upon his return to Constantinople. According to the Strategikon of Kekaumenos, written in the 1070s, Harald (referred to as Araltes) gained the emperor’s favour and was initially appointed manglabites (possibly equivalent to the title protospatharios), a soldier of the imperial guard, after the Sicilian campaign. Following his service in Bulgaria, Harald received the rank of spatharokandidatos in Mosynopolis. While DeVries describes this as a promotion to the third-highest Byzantine rank, Mikhail Bibikov considers it a lower rank than protospatharios, typically awarded to foreign allies.

According to his skald Þjóðólfr Arnórsson, Harald participated in 18 major battles during his Byzantine service. However, after Michael IV’s death in December 1041 and the resulting conflicts between the new Emperor Michael V and Empress Zoe, Harald’s favour at court quickly declined.

During the upheaval, Harald was arrested and imprisoned. The reasons remain unclear: the sagas claim he was arrested for defrauding the emperor of his wealth or for requesting to marry a fictional niece or granddaughter of Zoe, named Maria (allegedly rejected because Zoe wanted Harald for herself). William of Malmesbury attributes the arrest to the violation of a noblewoman, while Saxo Grammaticus states it was for murder. DeVries speculates the new emperor feared Harald’s loyalty to the previous regime. Harald’s escape from prison is also uncertain, but he likely fled during the uprising against the new emperor. Some Varangians guarded the emperor, while Harald led the Varangians supporting the rebellion.

The emperor was eventually dragged from his sanctuary, blinded, and exiled to a monastery. The sagas claim Harald himself carried out the blinding or at least claimed to have done so.

 

Return to Kievan Rus'

During his time in the East, Harald amassed great wealth and safeguarded his fortune from Constantinople by transporting it to Kievan Rus', with Yaroslav the Wise acting as custodian. The sagas note that in addition to the significant spoils of war he retained, Harald participated three times in polutasvarf (loosely translated as "palace plundering"). This term likely refers either to the looting of the imperial treasury following the emperor's death or payments made by the new emperor to secure the Varangians' loyalty. It is likely that Harald used the wealth he earned during his service in Constantinople to finance his claim to the Norwegian crown. If he indeed participated in polutasvarf three times, these instances would have coincided with the deaths of Romanos III, Michael IV, and Michael V, providing Harald with opportunities to amass immense riches beyond his legitimate earnings.

After Empress Zoe was restored to power alongside Constantine IX in June 1042, Harald sought permission to return to Norway. Although Zoe refused, Harald managed to escape with two ships and a loyal band of followers. One of the ships was destroyed by Byzantine chains across the Bosporus, but Harald's vessel successfully navigated the barrier and reached the Black Sea. Despite this dramatic escape, Kekaumenos praised Harald for the "loyalty and affection" he reportedly maintained toward the empire, even after his return to Norway as king.

Harald returned to Kievan Rus' later in 1042, where he married Elisabeth (known in Scandinavian sources as Ellisif), the daughter of Yaroslav the Wise and granddaughter of Swedish King Olof Skötkonung. Shortly after Harald’s arrival in Kiev, Yaroslav attacked Constantinople, and it is believed Harald provided him with valuable intelligence on the state of the Byzantine Empire.

It is possible that Harald's marriage to Elisiv had been arranged during his first stay in Rus' or that the two were at least acquainted. During his service in the Byzantine Empire, Harald wrote a love poem containing the line, "Yet the goddess in Gardarike will not take my golden rings" (identified by Snorri Sturluson as referring to Elisiv). However, Morkinskinna claims Harald had to remind Yaroslav of the promised marriage upon his return to Kiev. According to the same source, Harald had previously proposed to Elisiv during his first time in Rus', but his request was rejected because he was not yet wealthy enough. That Harald was eventually allowed to marry Yaroslav's daughter is significant, given that Yaroslav's other children were married to prominent figures such as Henry I of France, Andrew I of Hungary, and the daughter of Constantine IX.

King of Norway

Return to Scandinavia

Determined to reclaim the kingdom his half-brother Olaf Haraldsson had lost, Harald set out westward in early 1045, traveling from Novgorod (Holmgard) to Staraya Ladoga (Aldeigjuborg), where he acquired a ship. His journey continued across Lake Ladoga, down the Neva River, and into the Gulf of Finland and the Baltic Sea. Harald arrived in Sigtuna, Sweden, likely in late 1045 or early 1046. Upon arrival, his ship, according to the skald Tjodolv Arnorsson, was nearly capsized by the sheer weight of gold aboard.

During Harald's absence, the Norwegian throne had been restored to Magnus the Good, an illegitimate son of Olaf. Harald may have been aware of this, which might explain his decision to return to Norway. The sons of Cnut the Great had left Norway to focus on England, and both Harold Harefoot and Harthacnut had died young, solidifying Magnus's position as king. Magnus faced no internal threats or uprisings during his reign, and after Harthacnut's death left the Danish throne vacant, Magnus was also elected king of Denmark. He defeated the Danish claimant Sweyn Estridsson, further strengthening his rule.

After learning of Sweyn's defeat, Harald allied with Sweyn and the Swedish king Anund Jacob to challenge Magnus. Their first military action was a raid on the Danish coast, aimed at undermining Magnus by demonstrating his inability to protect his people and persuading them to submit to Harald and Sweyn. When Magnus learned of the raids, he anticipated that Harald’s next target would be Norway. Harald may have planned to claim the small kingdom of his father first and then expand his control over the rest of the country. However, the Norwegian people were unwilling to turn against Magnus. Upon hearing of Harald’s plans, Magnus—who was abroad at the time—returned to Norway with his army.

Rather than engage in war, Magnus's advisors recommended a compromise. In 1046, an agreement was reached: Harald would co-rule Norway with Magnus (but not Denmark), with Magnus retaining precedence. Harald also had to agree to share half of his wealth with Magnus, who was practically bankrupt at the time and in dire need of funds. During their brief joint rule, Harald and Magnus maintained separate courts and rarely interacted, with their few recorded meetings nearly ending in violence.

Becoming Sole Ruler

In 1047, Magnus and Harald launched a campaign in Denmark with their leidang forces. Later that year, Magnus died in Jutland, less than a year into their co-rule, and without an heir. Before his death, Magnus had decreed that Sweyn should inherit Denmark and Harald should inherit Norway. Upon hearing of Magnus's death, Harald quickly convened local leaders in Norway and declared himself king of both Norway and Denmark.

Despite Magnus's will naming Sweyn as his successor in Denmark, Harald immediately announced plans to raise an army and drive his former ally out of the region. However, Norway's army and chieftains, led by Einar Thambarskelfir, opposed any plans for an invasion of Denmark. While Harald objected to transporting Magnus's body back to Norway, the Norwegian army prepared his remains for burial in Nidaros (modern-day Trondheim), where Magnus was interred next to Saint Olaf. Einar, an opponent of Harald, declared, "It is better to follow Magnus dead than any other king alive."

Reign in Norway

Under Harald’s rule, Norway introduced a royal monopoly on coin minting. The coins minted during Harald's reign were widely accepted as currency, marking a shift from the continued use of predominantly foreign coins. Minting likely provided a significant portion of Harald’s annual revenue, although the coinage system in Norway eventually collapsed in the late 14th century.

 

Invasions in Denmark

Harald sought to restore Magnus's control over Denmark and likely aimed to re-establish the entirety of Cnut the Great's "North Sea Empire" in the long term. Although his initial proposal to invade Denmark failed, Harald launched a prolonged conflict against Sweyn Estridsson beginning in 1048. This war, characterised by near-annual raids, lasted until 1064. Similar to his earlier campaigns against Magnus’s rule in Denmark, Harald’s assaults primarily involved swift and violent raids along the Danish coasts.

In 1048, Harald plundered Jutland, and in 1049, he looted and burned Hedeby, Denmark’s most important trading hub and one of Scandinavia’s most well-fortified and populous cities. Hedeby never recovered as a civilian settlement and was utterly destroyed when its remnants were plundered by Slavic tribes in 1066. Later in 1049, Harald was prepared to engage Sweyn in a conventional battle, but according to Saxo Grammaticus, Sweyn's smaller force, terrified by the approaching Norwegians, fled into the water, where most drowned. Despite Harald’s numerous victories in battle, he was never able to conquer Denmark outright.

The second and more significant battle between the two kings was the naval Battle of Niså on 9 August 1062. Frustrated by his failure to subjugate Denmark through raiding, Harald sought a decisive victory over Sweyn. He gathered a large army and a fleet of approximately 300 ships, departing from Norway. Sweyn, equally prepared, agreed on a time and place for the battle. However, Sweyn did not appear at the appointed time, leading Harald to send home his bóndaherrin (levied farmers), who constituted half his army. Once these ships were out of range, Sweyn’s fleet—possibly also numbering 300 ships—arrived.

The ensuing battle was bloody. Harald defeated the Danes, reportedly leaving 70 of their ships empty, but many of Sweyn’s forces escaped, including Sweyn himself. During the battle, Harald actively shot arrows alongside his men during its early phases.

The exhaustion and enormous costs of these inconclusive battles eventually led Harald to seek peace with Sweyn. In 1064 (or 1065, according to Morkinskinna), the two kings agreed to an unconditional peace treaty, retaining their respective kingdoms with their pre-existing borders and forgoing reparations.

Domestic Rule and Opposition

After securing peace with Denmark, Harald turned his attention to consolidating his power in Norway. In the winter of 1065, he travelled through his realm, accusing farmers of withholding taxes. Harald responded brutally, mutilating and killing people as warnings to others who disobeyed him. He maintained control through the use of his hird—a private standing army supported by Norwegian lords. Harald strengthened the monarchy by enforcing that only the king was allowed to maintain an army, thus centralising power and reducing the influence of local warlords.

Historian Knut Helle argued that Harald completed the first phase of what he called Norway’s "national territorial unification." After forcing his way onto the throne, Harald had to convince the aristocracy that he was the right person to rule Norway alone. To build alliances, he married Tora Torbergsdatter, a member of one of Norway’s most powerful families.

The greatest opposition to Harald’s rule came from the descendants of Haakon Sigurdsson, a powerful dynasty that had historically controlled northern Norway and Trøndelag with considerable autonomy. Haakon had even ruled all of Norway (nominally under the Danish king) from 975 to 995 before being killed during Olaf Tryggvasson’s rise to power. Despite Haakon's death, his descendants retained influence, and at the start of Harald’s reign, the family was led by Einar Thambarskelfir, who was married to Haakon's daughter. While the family had good relations with Magnus, Harald’s absolutist rule and efforts to strengthen the monarchy soon led to conflict with Einar.

Harald’s struggles with the Norwegian aristocracy earned him the epithet "Hardrada" or "the hard ruler." His relationship with Einar was poor from the beginning but escalated into open confrontation when Harald visited his court in Nidaros. On one occasion, Einar arrived at Harald’s court with "eight or nine longships and nearly 500 men," an apparent show of force seeking a confrontation. Harald, however, did not rise to the provocation.

Although the sources differ on the exact circumstances, the conflict eventually culminated in Einar’s assassination by Harald’s men, which nearly plunged Norway into civil war. The remaining descendants of Haakon Sigurdsson considered rebellion but ultimately made peace with Harald, securing their submission for the rest of his reign. By 1050, with the deaths of Einar and his son, the Lade family had lost its role as a centre of opposition, and Trøndelag was fully integrated into Harald’s national kingdom.

Challenges from Haakon Ivarsson

Before the Battle of Niså, Harald had the support of Haakon Ivarsson, who distinguished himself in the battle and earned Harald’s favour. Harald reportedly considered granting Haakon the title of earl, but he later reneged on this promise, leaving Haakon deeply angered. Due to his strong position in the highlands, Haakon was granted the county of Värmland by Swedish King Stenkil. In early 1064, Haakon entered the Norwegian highlands and collected taxes, leading to unrest in the region and threats of rebellion against Harald.

This uprising may have been a significant factor in Harald’s decision to agree to peace with Sweyn Estridsson. After the peace treaty, Harald turned his focus back to domestic issues. When he sent tax collectors into the uplands, the farmers withheld their payments, awaiting Haakon's arrival. In response, Harald marched into Sweden with an army and quickly defeated Haakon. Despite this victory, the farmers continued their resistance, prompting Harald to launch a devastating campaign.

Harald’s forces destroyed farms and villages, mutilated and killed people, and burned entire regions. Starting in Romerike, the campaign extended to Hedmark, Hadeland, and Ringerike. These areas, home to several wealthy rural communities, bolstered Harald’s economic position through confiscation of property. By the end of 1065, Norway was likely at peace, with all opposition killed, exiled, or silenced.

 

Political Measures

Harald's rule was deeply influenced by his background as a military commander, often resolving disputes through brute force. One of his skalds even boasted about how Harald crushed settlements during his campaigns in the Mediterranean. While the sagas primarily focus on Harald's wars with Sweyn and his invasion of England, little is recorded about his domestic policies. Modern historians interpret this lack of detail as evidence that Harald’s reign, despite its autocratic nature, was a time of relative peace and progress for Norway.

Harald is credited with implementing sound economic policies, including the establishment of a Norwegian currency and a functional minting system. This enabled Norway to participate in international trade, fostering connections with Kievan Rus', the Byzantine Empire, Scotland, and Ireland. According to later sagas, Harald also founded Oslo and spent considerable time there.

He continued to promote Christianity in Norway, with archaeological evidence indicating that churches were built and improved during his reign. Harald imported bishops, priests, and monks from abroad, particularly from Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire, introducing a somewhat distinct form of Christianity to Norway. While the East-West Schism had not yet occurred, tensions arose when papal legates visited Harald. These legates objected to the clergy Harald had brought to Norway, as they had not been consecrated in England or France. Harald reportedly dismissed the Catholic clergy from his court, declaring to the legates that he "knew no archbishop or lord of Norway other than the king himself." Norwegian historian Halvdan Koht remarked that these words sounded "like those of a Byzantine despot." Harald’s connections with Byzantine emperors may have influenced his ecclesiastical policies.

Explorations in the North

After returning to Norway, Harald appears to have taken an interest in exploring his kingdom. Morkinskinna mentions a journey Harald undertook to the uplands. He may have also ventured beyond his kingdom's seas. The contemporary historian Adam of Bremen wrote about Harald’s maritime explorations:

"The adventurous prince Haraldr of the Norwegians recently ventured onto this [sea]. After thoroughly exploring the extent of the northern ocean with his ships, he finally saw the dark, failing edges of the savage world and, retracing his steps, barely escaped the deep abyss in safety."
– Adam of Bremen, Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum, 4. XXXIX

Kelly DeVries has suggested that Harald might have known about and possibly visited the legendary Vinland, recently discovered by Norse seafarers. Adam of Bremen noted that Vinland was widely known in Denmark and Norway. However, H. H. Lamb proposed that the land Harald reached could have been either Svalbard or Novaya Zemlya.

Invasion of England

Background and Preparations

Having realised he could not conquer Denmark, Harald turned his attention to England. His claim stemmed from a 1038 agreement between Magnus the Good and the previous ruler, Harthacnut, who died childless in 1042. The agreement stipulated that if either ruler died without an heir, the other would inherit their lands. However, it was unlikely Magnus anticipated taking the English throne without resistance. Harthacnut himself had preferred his brother Edward the Confessor, who became king with the support of Earl Godwin, Harold Godwinson's father. Magnus’s plans to invade England in 1045 were interrupted as he dealt with Sweyn of Denmark's rebellion.

After Magnus’s death in 1047, Harald inherited his claim. Edward, however, placated potential rivals by hinting they could succeed him. This included Harald, Sweyn, and William, Duke of Normandy. In 1058, Harald’s son Magnus supported a large Welsh raid on England, though details are scarce. This may have shown Harald that simultaneous campaigns against Denmark and England were impractical. The situation became critical when Edward died in January 1066, and Harold Godwinson was declared king of England.

Harold's brother Tostig Godwinson, the former Earl of Northumbria, sought to reclaim his titles and lands. He reportedly approached both William and Sweyn Estridsson for support. However, North England was the most suitable landing point for a Norwegian invasion, making Tostig more valuable to Harald. Details are limited, but Tostig may have sent another exile, Copsig, to Norway to negotiate plans while he remained in France. This could have bolstered both Tostig’s and Harald’s chances, as Tostig simultaneously supported William’s invasion, another claimant to the throne.

In March or April 1066, Harald began assembling his fleet in Solund in the Sognefjord. By early September, the fleet—comprised of 240–300 longships and including Harald's flagship Ormen ("The Serpent")—was ready. Before departing Norway, Harald declared Magnus king of Norway and left Tora behind, taking Elisiv, his daughters, and Olaf with him. Along the way, Harald stopped in Shetland and Orkney, collecting additional troops, including Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson, Earls of Orkney. In Dunfermline, he met Tostig’s ally, Malcolm III of Scotland, who provided around 2,000 Scottish soldiers.

Although Harald may have met Tostig there, most sources suggest their forces joined on 8 September in Tynemouth. Harald brought around 10,000–15,000 men aboard 240–300 longships, while Tostig contributed only 12 ships. However, his connections proved significant. Chronicler John of Worcester noted that Tostig left Flanders in May or June, raiding Harold Godwinson's territories in southern England, from the Isle of Wight to Sandwich. This created the illusion that a Norman attack was imminent, allowing Tostig to sail north while Harold and most of his forces waited in the south for William’s invasion.

 

Early Raids, Invasion, and the Battle of Fulford

After embarking from Tynemouth, Harald and Tostig likely landed at the River Tees, then advanced into Cleveland, raiding the coastline. Their first resistance came at Scarborough, where Harald's demand for surrender was rejected. In retaliation, he burned the town, prompting other Northumbrian settlements to capitulate. Following more raids, Harald and Tostig sailed up the Humber, landing at Riccall on 20 September 1066.

The earls Morcar of Northumbria and Edwin of Mercia, having learned of the raids, confronted Harald’s invasion force three miles south of York in the Battle of Fulford, also on 20 September. Harald and Tostig won a decisive victory, leading York to surrender to their forces on 24 September. This marked the last time a Scandinavian army defeated English troops.

On the same day York capitulated, Harold Godwinson and his army arrived in Tadcaster, only 11 kilometres from Harald’s fleet at Riccall. Likely scouting the Norwegian fleet, Harold prepared a surprise attack. With Harald leaving no forces in York, Harold marched his troops through the city toward Stamford Bridge.

The Battle of Stamford Bridge

On the morning of 25 September, Harald and Tostig led the majority of their forces from Riccall, leaving a third of their troops behind. They brought only light armour, expecting to meet York's citizens at Stamford Bridge to discuss the administration of the city under Harald’s rule, as previously agreed.

Upon arrival, they saw Harold Godwinson's heavily armed and numerically superior troops approaching. According to non-saga sources, an immense Norwegian warrior delayed the English advance by holding the bridge single-handedly, giving Harald and Tostig time to form a shield wall. Despite this effort, Harald’s forces suffered a devastating defeat.

Harald himself was killed early in the battle, struck in the throat by an arrow. He fought aggressively in a berserkergang (berserker rage), wielding his sword with both hands while unarmoured.

As the battle neared its end, reinforcements from Riccall led by Eystein Orre arrived. Exhausted from running, they launched a desperate counterattack. Eystein raised Harald’s fallen banner, Landøyðan ("Landwaster"), and briefly threatened to break the English lines. However, Eystein was suddenly killed, forcing the remaining Norwegians to retreat.

Among those left at Riccall, whom the English allowed to return home peacefully, was Harald’s son Olaf. While some sources suggest the returning forces filled only 20–25 ships, this likely excludes Scottish and Orkney troops, many of whom remained at Riccall throughout the battle. Paul and Erlend Thorfinnsson, the Earls of Orkney, were certainly stationed there.

Aftermath

Harold Godwinson’s victory was short-lived. Just weeks later, he was defeated and killed by William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings. Harold’s need to march rapidly north to face Harald Hardrada at Stamford Bridge, then rush south to meet the Norman invasion, is widely regarded as a key factor in William’s success at Hastings.

Personal Life

Physical Appearance

Snorri Sturluson describes Harald as "taller than other men and stronger," with fair hair, a long moustache, and one eyebrow slightly higher than the other. He reportedly had large hands and feet and stood five ells tall. Whether Snorri’s description is historically accurate remains uncertain. Harald’s height is supported by a story in which Harold Godwinson offers Tostig the earldom of Northumbria and promises Harald "six feet of English ground, or perhaps more, since he is taller than most men" (Henry of Huntingdon) or "seven feet, as he was taller than other men" (Snorri Sturluson).

Skills and Interests

Harald was an accomplished skald (poet). According to Lee M. Hollander, while composing poetry was common among Norwegian kings, Harald stood out for his "distinctive talent." One of his poems notes his skill in Viking-era sports, including brewing, riding, swimming, skiing, shooting, rowing, and harp-playing. The sagas recount that Harald and his Varangians paused during a city siege to engage in sporting activities.

Religious Views

Harald displayed a "religious inclination toward Christianity," according to Kelly DeVries, and publicly supported the Christian church. However, his outlook was influenced by the Eastern Christian traditions of Kievan Rus' and the Byzantine Empire, where he spent much of his life. He actively promoted Christianity in Norway, as evidenced by the construction and improvement of churches during his reign.

Despite this, DeVries notes that Harald’s "personal morals did not align with Christian ideals," particularly concerning his marriage arrangements. His promotion of Christianity was likely pragmatic, reinforcing his legitimacy as king.

 

Differences in Harald's Marriages

Harald married Elisiv of Kiev (c. 1025 – after 1066) around 1044/45, and they likely had several children, though the exact number is uncertain. According to Snorri Sturluson, they had two daughters:

  • Ingegerd (c. 1050 – c. 1120): Initially married to Olaf I of Denmark and later to Philip of Sweden after Olaf's death.
  • Maria (died 25 September 1066): Betrothed to Eystein Orre (Tora Torbergsdatter’s brother) but allegedly died in Orkney on the same day Harald and Eystein fell at Stamford Bridge.

The sagas state that Harald married Tora Torbergsdatter (c. 1025 – after 1066) around 1048. Some modern historians question this claim, arguing that such a union would have been bigamous since Harald was still married to Elisiv. However, it is plausible that such arrangements existed in 11th-century Norway. Although Harald had two wives, only Elisiv is acknowledged as queen. Harald and Tora had at least two sons:

  • Magnus II (c. 1049 – c. 1069): King of Norway from 1066 to 1069.
  • Olaf III (c. 1050 – c. 1093): King of Norway from 1067 to 1093.

Legacy

Burial

Harald’s body was returned to Norway a year after his death at Stamford Bridge and interred in the Church of St Mary in Nidaros (modern Trondheim). Approximately 100 years later, his remains were moved to Helgeseter Priory, which was demolished in the 17th century.

On 25 September 2006, the 940th anniversary of Harald’s death, the newspaper Aftenposten highlighted the poor condition of old royal burial sites in Norway, including Harald’s, which is believed to lie beneath a road built over the priory grounds. The Trondheim city council later announced plans to consider exhuming Harald’s remains and relocating them to Nidaros Cathedral, where nine Norwegian kings, including Magnus the Good and Magnus Haraldsson (Harald’s predecessor and successor), are interred. A month later, the proposal to exhume Harald was abandoned.

Modern Monuments

In Oslo, a city Harald is traditionally credited with founding, two monuments honour him:

  1. A bronze relief on granite by Lars Utne, depicting Harald on horseback, was unveiled in 1905 at Harald Hardrådes plass (Harald Hardrada’s Square).
  2. In 1950, a large relief by Anne Grimdalen, also showing Harald on horseback, was installed on the west façade of Oslo’s City Hall.

In Popular Culture

Harald has appeared in several historical novels:

  • In H.P. Lovecraft’s novella The Call of Cthulhu, a key figure is described as residing in "the old city of King Harold Haardrada," a reference to Oslo.
  • Justin Hill’s Viking Fire (part of the Conquest Trilogy) narrates Harald’s life in his own voice.
  • Harald is the protagonist in Henry Treece’s children’s books The Last of the Vikings (1964) and Swords from the North (1967).
  • He also appears in Poul Anderson’s trilogy The Last Viking (1980) and Michael Ennis’s Byzantium (1989), which explores Harald’s career in the Byzantine Empire.
  • In David Gibbins’s Crusader Gold (2007), Harald plays a pivotal role, acquiring the lost Menorah during his service in the Byzantine Varangian Guard.
  • He features in Meadowland (2005) by Tom Holt.

Harald’s dramatic escape from Constantinople is referenced in the song "The Great Escape" by Finnish folk-metal band Turisas. His story is loosely followed in the albums The Varangian Way (2007) and Stand Up and Fight (2011).

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