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Heathenry, also known as Heathenism, contemporary Germanic Heathenry, or Germanic Neopaganism, is a modern pagan religion. Scholars of religion classify it as a new religious movement. It emerged in Europe in the early 20th century, drawing inspiration from the pre-Christian religions of the Germanic peoples during the Iron Age and early Middle Ages. In attempting to reconstruct these past belief systems, Heathenry relies on preserved historical, archaeological, and folkloric evidence, although approaches to this material vary significantly.
Heathenry does not have a unified theology but is typically polytheistic, focusing on a pantheon of deities from pre-Christian Germanic Europe. It incorporates cosmological views from these past societies, including an animistic perspective of the cosmos, where the natural world is seen as imbued with spirits. The religion honours its deities and spirits through sacrificial rites called blóts, during which food and drink offerings are made. These rituals are often accompanied by a symbel, an act of toasting the gods with an alcoholic beverage.
Some practitioners also perform rituals designed to induce altered states of consciousness and visions, particularly seiðr and galdr, to seek wisdom and guidance from the gods. While many Heathens practise the religion alone, others gather in small groups, commonly referred to as "kindreds" or "hearths," to conduct their rites outdoors or in purpose-built structures. Heathen ethics emphasise honour, personal integrity, and loyalty, while beliefs about the afterlife vary and are rarely a central focus.
Origins
The roots of Heathenry lie in the Romanticism of the 19th and early 20th centuries, which glorified the pre-Christian societies of Germanic Europe. In the 1900s and 1910s, folkish groups in Germany and Austria began actively worshipping the deities of these societies, although many of these groups disbanded following the defeat of Nazi Germany in World War II.
In the 1970s, new Heathen groups emerged in Europe and North America, evolving into formalised organisations. A central division within the Heathen movement developed around the issue of race.
Racial Perspectives
Older groups adopted a racialised stance—commonly referred to within the community as folkish—viewing Heathenry as an ethnic or racial religion inherently tied to the Germanic race. These groups believe the religion should be exclusive to white people, particularly those of Northern European ancestry, often associating the faith with far-right and white supremacist ideologies.
A larger proportion of Heathens take a universalist perspective, maintaining that the religion is open to all people, regardless of ethnic or racial background.
Terminology and Regional Variations
Although the term Heathenry is widely used to describe the religion as a whole, many groups prefer distinct terms influenced by their regional focus and ideological preferences. Heathens drawing on Scandinavian sources may use Ásatrú, Vanatrú, or Forn Sed; those focusing on Anglo-Saxon traditions may use Fyrnsidu or Theodism; practitioners of German traditions may use Irminism; and Heathens with folkish and far-right perspectives often prefer terms such as Odinism, Wotanism, Wodenism, or Odalism.
Scholarly estimates suggest there are no more than 20,000 Heathens worldwide, with active communities in Europe, the Americas, and Australasia.
Definition
Scholars of religion classify Heathenry as a new religious movement, specifically as a reconstructive form of modern Paganism. Heathenry has been defined as a broad contemporary Pagan new religious movement (NRM), consciously inspired by the linguistically, culturally, and (in some definitions) ethnically "Germanic" societies of the Iron Age and early medieval Europe, as they existed prior to Christianisation. It is also described as a movement aimed at reviving and/or reinterpreting the practices and worldviews of the pre-Christian cultures of Northern Europe (or specifically Germanic-speaking cultures) for the present day.
Practitioners attempt to revive these past belief systems by using preserved historical source material, including Old Norse texts associated with Iceland, such as the Prose Edda and Poetic Edda, Old English texts like Beowulf, and Middle High German works such as the Nibelungenlied. Some Heathens also incorporate ideas from archaeological evidence of pre-Christian Northern Europe and the folklore of later periods in European history.
For many Heathens, this material is referred to as "Lore," and studying it is a central part of their religion. However, some sources remain problematic for reconstructing pre-Christian belief systems, as they were written by Christians and often portray pre-Christian religion in a fragmented and biased manner.
The anthropologist Jenny Blain characterises Heathenry as a religion constructed from partial material, while the scholar of religion Michael Strmiska describes Heathens' beliefs as being infused with uncertainty and historical confusion, thus framing it as a postmodern movement.
Approaches to Historical Material
The ways in which Heathens utilise historical and archaeological material vary. Some seek to reconstruct past beliefs and practices as accurately as possible, while others experiment freely with this material and embrace new innovations.
For example, some practitioners adapt their practices based on unverified personal gnosis (UPG) gained through spiritual experiences. Others incorporate concepts from surviving ethnic religions around the world, as well as modern polytheistic traditions such as Hinduism and Afro-American religions, believing that this helps construct a spiritual worldview similar to that which existed in Europe before Christianisation. Practitioners who rely solely on historical and archaeological sources often criticise such approaches, derogatorily referring to those who adopt them as "Neo-Pagans."
Some Heathens seek common elements found throughout Germanic Europe during the Iron Age and early Middle Ages and use these as the foundation for their contemporary beliefs and practices. Others draw inspiration from the beliefs and practices of a specific geographic area or time period within Germanic Europe, such as Anglo-Saxon England or Viking Age Iceland.
Some followers are highly knowledgeable about the intricacies of Northern European societies during the Iron Age and early Middle Ages. However, most practitioners derive their understanding of the pre-Christian past primarily from fictional literature and popular representations of Norse mythology.
Heathenry as an Invented Tradition
The sociologist of religion Jennifer Snook observes that many practitioners imagine themselves as returning to a more epic, anachronistic, and purer age of ancestors and heroes.
Anthropologist Murphy Pizza suggests understanding Heathenry as an invented tradition, while the scholar of religion Fredrik Gregorius notes that despite there being no genuine continuity between Heathenry and the pre-Christian belief systems of Germanic Europe, Heathens often dislike being considered followers of a new religion or modern invention. As a result, they often present their faith as traditional.
Many practitioners avoid describing their practices with the academic term reconstructionism and instead frame them as an indigenous religion, drawing parallels with the traditional belief systems of indigenous peoples around the world.
Claims of Indigeneity
Some Heathens—particularly in the United States—portray themselves as victims of medieval Christian colonialism and imperialism, claiming a sense of indigeneity for themselves. A 2015 survey within the Heathen community found that an equal number of practitioners (36%) viewed their religion as a reconstruction of old beliefs as those who saw it as a direct continuation of ancient systems. Only 22% described it as modern but historically inspired, although this was the dominant interpretation among practitioners in Nordic countries.
Terminology
There is no central religious authority prescribing a specific term for all practitioners, leading various Heathen groups to use different terms to describe both their religion and themselves. These terms often reflect their socio-political beliefs as well as the particular Germanic region of pre-Christian Europe that inspires their practices.
Scholars studying this religion generally favour the terms Heathenry and Heathenism, as these encompass all variations of the movement. This terminology is most commonly used by practitioners in the United Kingdom and is increasingly adopted in North America and elsewhere.
These terms derive from the word Heathen, which is attested in Gothic as haithn and was adopted by Gothic Arian missionaries as a translation for the Greek words Hellenis (Hellene, Greek) and ethnikós (pertaining to a foreign people). The term was used by early medieval Christian writers in Germanic Europe to describe non-Christians. By reclaiming it, practitioners attempt to repurpose the term as a self-designation. Many practitioners prefer Heathen over Pagan, as the former originates in Germanic languages, whereas Pagan has Latin roots.
Other terms used in academic contexts include contemporary Germanic Heathenry and Germanic Neopaganism. However, the latter is an artificial term developed by scholars and is rarely used within the Heathen community itself. Alternatively, Jenny Blain suggested the term Northern European Heathenry as a broad scholarly label for the movement. Michael Strmiska noted that this could also encompass practitioners inspired by the belief systems of Finno-Ugric and Slavic-speaking societies in northeastern Europe. Strmiska preferred modern Nordic Heathenry but acknowledged that this excludes Heathens who draw inspiration from pre-Christian Germanic societies outside of Scandinavia, such as the Anglo-Saxons and Goths.
Ásatrú and Other Terms
One widely used term for the religion is the Icelandic Ásatrú, which can be translated as "Æsir faith"—the Æsir being a subgroup of deities in Norse mythology. This term is commonly rendered as Asatru in North America, with practitioners referred to as Asatruar. It is preferred by practitioners focusing on the Norse deities of Scandinavia. However, the term is problematic, as many self-identified Asatruar honour other entities beyond the Æsir, such as the Vanir, Valkyries, elves, and dwarves. Although Ásatrú was initially popular among practitioners and academics, its usage has declined as the religion has matured.
Other practitioners describe their religion as Vanatrú ("those who honour the Vanir") or Dísitrú ("those who honour the goddesses"), depending on their theological focus. A small group of practitioners who venerate the Jötnar refer to their tradition as Rokkatru. Since the mid-2000s, the term Forn Siðr or Forn Sed ("the old way") has gained popularity, particularly in Scandinavia. This term is also reclaimed from Christian usage, where it was previously employed in a derogatory sense in Old Norse texts like Heimskringla to describe pre-Christian religion.
Other terms used within the community include Nordic Tradition, Norse Heathenry, and Saxon Heathenry. During the early 20th century, terms like Teutonic Faith, Nordic Faith, or Germanic Faith were more common. In the United States, groups with a Germanic focus have used Irminism, while those emphasising an Anglo-Saxon approach have used Fyrnsidu or Theodism.
Folkish and Far-Right Terminology
Racially oriented Heathens often prefer terms like Odinism or Wotanism to describe their religion. The England-based racist group Woden’s Folk uses Wodenism and Woden Folk Religion, while another far-right group, the Heathen Front, has adopted the term Odalism, coined by Varg Vikernes and inspired by the Odal rune.
It is widely perceived that those who use Odinism adopt an explicitly political, far-right, and racist interpretation of the religion, whereas Asatru is used by more moderate Heathen groups. In practice, however, there is no clear division in how these terms are used.
Fredrik Gregorius observed that the term Odinism is highly problematic because it implies that the god Odin, derived from Norse mythology, is central to the theology of these groups, which is often not the case. Furthermore, the term is also used by at least one non-racist group, the British Odinshof, which employs it to emphasise their particular devotion to Odin.
Beliefs
Gods and Spirits
Religious historian Mattias Gardell notes that there is "no universally accepted theology" within the Heathen movement. Some early Heathens, such as Guido von List, found the polytheistic nature of pre-Christian religion embarrassing and argued that it was actually monotheistic. Since the 1970s, however, this negative view of polytheism has shifted.
Today, Heathenry is typically characterised as polytheistic, with a theological structure that includes a pantheon of gods and goddesses. Adherents offer loyalty and worship to some or all of these deities. Most practitioners are polytheistic realists, referring to themselves as "hard" or "true polytheists," believing in the literal existence of the gods as individual entities. Others interpret the gods psychologically, viewing them as symbols, Jungian archetypes, or racial archetypes, with some in this group identifying as atheists.
The deities of Heathenry are drawn from the pre-Christian belief systems of various Germanic societies in Europe. These include figures such as Týr, Odin, Thor, Frigg, and Freyja from Scandinavian sources; Wōden, Thunor, and Ēostre from Anglo-Saxon sources; and deities like Nehalennia from Continental sources. Some adherents adopt the Norse mythological belief in two groups of deities, the Æsir and Vanir. Some mix traditions, using names from both Old English and Old Norse sources, while others keep these traditions distinct, worshipping only deities from a specific region. Certain groups focus their devotion on a single deity; for instance, the Czech Heathen group Brotherhood of Wolves places the wolf deity Fenrir at the centre of their worship. Similarly, many practitioners in the United States adopt a personal patron deity, to whom they dedicate a fulltrúi oath and refer to themselves using terms like "Thorsman" or "Odinsman."
Heathen gods are not considered perfect, omnipotent, or omnipresent; they have their own strengths and weaknesses. Many Heathens believe that the gods, like the Norse god Baldr, will one day die. Heathens view their relationship with the gods as reciprocal, akin to familial bonds, rather than one of master and servant. The gods serve as role models whose behaviours and actions practitioners aim to emulate. Many practitioners believe they can communicate, negotiate, bargain, and even argue with the gods, hoping to gain wisdom, understanding, power, or visionary insights through worship. In Heathen rituals, gods are often represented by god poles—wooden poles with carved anthropomorphic faces, a tradition rooted in pre-Christian practices. In other cases, resin statues of the gods may be used.
Many adherents integrate their polytheistic worldview with a pantheistic idea of the natural world as sacred and imbued with a divine energy that permeates all life. Heathenry is also animistic, with followers believing in non-human spirits, commonly called wights (vættir), which inhabit the world. These spirits, each believed to have a distinct personality, include "land spirits" (landvættir) associated with the landscape and household spirits that dwell in homes. Some Heathens interact more frequently with these entities than with the gods, offering them food and other sacrifices. Wights are often identified with creatures from Northwest European folklore, such as elves, dwarves, gnomes, and trolls. Some entities, like the Jötnar from Norse mythology, are considered malevolent spirits, and offering sacrifices to them is often taboo—though some practitioners do so regardless. Many Heathens also venerate ancestor spirits, with ancestor worship forming an important part of their religious practice. For Heathens, the relationship with ancestors provides a foundation for their identity and a source of strength from the past.
Cosmology and Afterlife
Heathens often adopt a cosmology based on Norse mythology. In this framework, the world of humanity—known as Midgard—is one of nine realms connected by a cosmological world tree called Yggdrasil. Different beings are thought to inhabit these realms: humans live in Midgard, while dwarves, elves, Jötnar, and gods reside in others.
Most practitioners view this cosmology as poetic or symbolic, with the realms representing higher planes of existence beyond the material world. Yggdrasil is sometimes seen as a symbol of ecological and social responsibility. Some Heathens, such as psychologist Brian Bates, approach this cosmology from an analytical psychology perspective, interpreting the nine realms and their inhabitants as maps of the human mind.
A common Heathen belief, drawn from Old Norse sources, is that three female entities called the Norns sit at the roots of Yggdrasil. These figures spin wyrd, representing the interconnected actions of all beings across the cosmos. The Norns are sometimes interpreted as representing "past, present, and future," "being, becoming, and obligation," or "initiation, becoming, and unfolding." Heathens believe individuals navigate wyrd, creating a worldview that balances free will and fatalism. Personal wyrd, known as örlög, is emphasised in Heathenry and linked to the concept of luck, which practitioners in North America often believe can be earned, inherited, or lost across generations.
Some Heathen groups incorporate the Norse apocalyptic myth of Ragnarök into their beliefs. Few see it as a literal prophecy of future events; instead, it is often viewed as a symbolic warning about humanity’s destructive potential toward itself and the natural world. The death of the gods in Ragnarök is frequently interpreted as a reminder of mortality and the importance of living a life of honour and integrity. Conversely, ethno-nationalist Heathens have interpreted Ragnarök as a prophecy of an impending apocalypse in which the "white race" will overthrow its perceived oppressors and establish a future society based on Heathen religion. Political scientist Jeffrey Kaplan argued that Ragnarök’s "strong millenarian and chiliastic undertones" helped attract white American racists to the far-right wing of the Heathen movement.
Some practitioners place little emphasis on the afterlife, focusing instead on behaviour and reputation in this world. Within Icelandic Heathenry, there is no single dogmatic belief in the afterlife. A common Heathen belief is that a person has multiple souls, some of which survive physical death. It is often believed that individuals possess four or five souls, two of which endure after death: the hugr, which travels to the realm of the ancestors, and the fetch, which undergoes reincarnation into a new body. Heathen beliefs about the afterlife include various realms that a person’s hugr can enter, partly depending on the merit of their earthly life. These realms include Odin’s hall of Valhalla or Freyja’s hall of Sessrúmnir. Belief in reincarnation varies widely among Heathens, though a common view is that individuals are reborn within their family or clan.
Morality and Ethics
Values and Principles
Heathen morality and ethics are rooted in the perceived values of Iron Age and early medieval Northwestern Europe, particularly those reflected in the actions of heroic figures from Old Norse sagas. Heathen ethics evoke a life-affirming ethos centred on ideals such as honour, courage, integrity, hospitality, and hard work, with a strong emphasis on loyalty to family. Practitioners are generally expected to keep their word, particularly when making oaths. This fosters a strongly individualistic ethos focused on personal responsibility, encapsulated by the common Heathen motto: "We are our deeds." Most Heathens reject the concept of sin, viewing guilt as a destructive rather than constructive idea.
Some Heathen communities have formalised these values into an ethical code known as the Nine Noble Virtues (NNV), largely based on the Hávamál from the Poetic Edda. This code was first developed by the founders of the Odinist Fellowship in the UK during the 1970s and has since gained international traction, with 77% of respondents in a 2015 Heathen survey reporting some use of it. Variants of the NNV exist, with the number nine holding symbolic significance in Norse mythology. Opinions on the NNV are divided; some practitioners consider it overly dogmatic, while others dismiss it as lacking authentic roots in historical Germanic culture and view it negatively as an attempt to mimic the Judeo-Christian Ten Commandments. The NNV is particularly unpopular in Nordic countries and has seen a decline in usage in the United States.
Gender Roles
In the Heathen community in the United States, gender roles are based on perceived ideals and norms found in early medieval Northwestern Europe, as depicted in Old Norse sources. Among male American Heathens, there is a trend toward hypermasculine behaviour, and a gendered division of labour—where men are seen as providers and women as caretakers of the home and children—is common. Due to its focus on traditional attitudes toward sex and gender—values considered socially conservative in Western societies—American Heathenry's ethical system has been argued to resemble traditional Christian morality more closely than the ethical systems found in many other Western Pagan religions, such as Wicca. However, a 2015 survey found that a greater proportion of Heathens reject traditional gender roles than support them, particularly in Northern Europe.
Politics and Environmentalism
Sociologist Jennifer Snook observed that Heathenry, like all religions, is closely tied to politics, with adherents' political and religious beliefs influencing one another. Since the religion emphasises honouring the land and its spirits, many Heathens are interested in environmental issues and view their faith as a nature religion. Heathen groups have participated in tree-planting initiatives, raised money to purchase woodlands, and campaigned against projects like the construction of a railway between London and the Channel Tunnel in Southeast England. Many Germanic Neopagans are also interested in preserving cultural monuments, and some practitioners have expressed concern over the archaeological excavation of prehistoric and early medieval burial sites, considering it disrespectful to the interred, whom they often regard as their ancestors.
Ethical Debates and Diversity
Ethical debates arise within the community when some adherents perceive certain religious practices as conflicting with the religion's "conservative sense of propriety." For example, many Heathens avoid worshipping the Norse god Loki, considering him a malevolent deity. However, Loki's fluid gender identity has made him appealing to many LGBT Heathens, leading to criticism of Lokeans by traditionalists as effeminate or sexually deviant. Views on homosexuality and LGBT rights remain a source of tension. Some right-wing Heathen groups consider homosexuality incompatible with a family-oriented ethos and condemn same-sex activities. Other groups justify their inclusivity toward LGBT practitioners by referencing the gender-fluid actions of Thor and Odin in Norse mythology. For instance, The Troth, a prominent Heathen organisation in the US, includes homosexual and transgender members. Many Heathen groups in Northern Europe perform same-sex marriages, and in 2008, a group of self-described "Homo-Heathens" marched in Stockholm Pride with a statue of the god Freyr.
Rites and Practices
Heathen Communities and Organisation
In English-speaking countries, Heathen groups are typically referred to as kindreds or hearths and sometimes as fellowships, tribes, or garths. These small groups, often familial, usually consist of five to fifteen members. They are often bound by oaths of loyalty, with strict vetting processes for admitting new members. Prospective members may undergo a probationary period before being fully accepted, while other groups remain closed to new members entirely. Heathen groups are largely independent and autonomous but often network with other groups, particularly within their region. There are also solitary practitioners who are not affiliated with any group but often connect with others through social media. A 2015 survey found that the majority of Heathens identify as solitary practitioners, with Northern Europe being an exception, where most Heathens reported group affiliation.
Priests are often referred to as gothi (male) and gydhja (female), terms derived from Old Norse meaning "god-man" and "god-woman," respectively, with the plural being gothar. These individuals rarely serve as intermediaries between practitioners and deities, instead facilitating group ceremonies and serving as experts in the religion's lore and traditions. Many groups believe anyone can act as a priest, with members sharing organisational responsibilities and taking turns leading rituals. In other groups, formal accreditation from a recognised Heathen organisation is required to serve as a priest. A few groups, particularly early 20th-century secret societies, model their priesthoods on a system of initiation with ascending degrees similar to Freemasonry.
Ritual Spaces and Practices
Heathen rituals often take place in private spaces, particularly in practitioners' homes. In other cases, Heathen worship sites have been established on specially acquired land, which may include a hörg (a sacred natural site such as a grove) or a hof (a wooden temple). Heathens have made efforts to construct hofs in various parts of the world. For instance, the Ásaheimur temple in Efri Ás, Skagafjörður, Iceland, opened in 2014, as did a British Heathen group’s temple in a repurposed 16th-century chapel in Newark, Nottinghamshire. Heathens have also used archaeological sites as places of worship, such as the Nine Ladies stone circle in Derbyshire, the Rollright Stones in Warwickshire, and the White Horse Stone in Kent. Swedish Heathens have performed rituals at Gamla Uppsala, while Icelandic practitioners have gathered at Þingvellir.
Rituals are held to mark rites of passage, seasonal festivals, oaths, deity-specific worship, and emergency situations. These rituals serve as identity practices that distinguish practitioners as Heathens. Strmiska noted that Heathen rituals in Iceland are deliberately designed to recreate or honour pre-Christian Icelandic practices while allowing room for innovation to suit contemporary needs. Many Heathen groups also hold study sessions to discuss medieval texts on pre-Christian religion; American Heathens often refer to their faith as a "religion with homework."
During ceremonies, many practitioners wear clothing styled after Iron Age and early medieval Northern Europe, sometimes referred to as "garb." They also frequently display symbols indicating their religious affiliation. The most commonly used symbol among Heathens is Mjölnir (Thor’s Hammer), worn as a pendant, featured in Heathen art, and used in ritual gestures. It is sometimes used to express a personal connection to Thor but is also widely regarded as a symbol of Heathenry as a whole, representing the religion’s resilience and vitality. Another commonly used Heathen symbol is the Valknut, associated with Odin or Woden. Practitioners often decorate their ritual items—and sometimes themselves, through tattoos—with runes, the alphabet of early medieval Germanic languages.
Blót and Sumbel
Blót
The most important religious rite in Heathenry is the blót, a ritual in which offerings are made to the gods. Typically held outdoors, the blót usually involves an offering of mead contained in a bowl. The gods are invoked and asked for their favour while a priest sprinkles mead on statues of the deities and on the assembled participants using a branch from an evergreen tree. This procedure may follow a script or be largely improvised. At the end, the bowl of mead is poured into a fire or onto the ground as a final gesture of thanks to the gods. Sometimes a communal meal follows the ritual, while in some groups, the meal is integrated into the rite itself. In other cases, the blót is simpler and less formalised, involving a practitioner setting aside some food, often wordlessly, for the gods or spirits. Some Heathens perform such rituals daily, while others do so less frequently. Beyond honouring the gods, communal blóts also serve as a form of group bonding.
In Iron Age and early medieval Northern Europe, the term blót sometimes referred to animal sacrifices conducted to thank the gods or gain their favour. Such sacrifices have proven impractical or are outright rejected by most modern practitioners, partly because animal slaughter is no longer widely taught, and in Western countries, it is strictly regulated. For example, the Icelandic group Ásatrúarfélagið explicitly prohibits animal sacrifices.
In 2007, Strmiska noted a "small but growing" number of Heathen practitioners in the U.S. who had begun incorporating animal sacrifices into blót. These Heathens view the sacrificed animal as a gift to the gods and sometimes as a "messenger" carrying a message to the deities. Groups performing such sacrifices often follow the procedure described in Heimskringla: the animal’s throat is slit with a sharp knife, and the blood is collected in a bowl, which is then sprinkled on both the ritual participants and the statues of the gods. Animals used for these purposes have included poultry as well as larger mammals like sheep and pigs, with the meat consumed by the ritual participants. Some practitioners have adapted this procedure; for instance, Strmiska recounted the case of two American Heathens who decided to kill the animal with a gunshot to the head after witnessing a blót where the animal's throat was not properly cut, leading to a slow and painful death. They believed such practices displeased the gods and would bring misfortune to the sacrificers.
Sumbel
Another common ritual in Heathenry is the sumbel (or symbel), a ceremonial drinking rite in which toasts are made to the gods. The sumbel often follows a blót. In the U.S., a drinking horn filled with mead is typically passed around the assembled participants, who either drink directly from it or pour some into their own vessels. During this process, toasts and verbal tributes are offered to gods, heroes, and ancestors. Oaths and boasts (promises of future actions) may also be made, which are considered binding due to the sacred context of the sumbel ceremony. According to Snook, the sumbel has a strong social function, serving as "a game of politics, sociability, consolidating bonds of peace and friendship, and forming new relationships" within the Heathen community.
During her ethnographic research, Pizza observed an example of a sumbel in Minnesota in 2006 that involved Heathen children. Instead of mead, the drinking horn contained apple juice, and participants attached apple-shaped cutouts to a poster of a tree symbolising Iðunn’s apple tree from Norse mythology.
Seiðr and Galdr
Seiðr
A religious practice sometimes found in Heathenry is seiðr, described as "a particular shamanic trance ritual complex," though the appropriateness of the term "shamanism" for seiðr is debated. Contemporary seiðr emerged in the 1990s from the broader Neo-Shamanic movement, with some practitioners initially studying trance practices in other religions, such as Umbanda.
One prominent form is oracular seiðr, based on the account of Guðriðr in the Eiríks saga. While practices vary between groups, oracular seiðr typically involves a seiðr practitioner sitting on a high seat while songs and chants are performed to summon gods and spirits. Drumming induces an altered state of consciousness, during which the practitioner embarks on a meditative journey, imagining a descent through the World Tree into the realm of Hel. Attendees then pose questions to the seiðr practitioner, who answers based on information received in the trance state. Some seiðr practitioners use entheogenic substances as part of their practice, while others explicitly reject mind-altering drugs.
Not all Heathens practise seiðr. Its associations with gender and sexual ambiguity, as well as its ties to the trickster gods Odin and Loki, lead many in the far-right wing of the Heathen movement to disapprove of it. While heterosexual male practitioners exist, seiðr is primarily associated with women and gay men, and a 2015 survey found that women were more likely than men to practise it. Controversy has also surrounded seiðr involving sexual magic, such as techniques developed by Edred Thorsson of The Troth, which incorporated sadomasochistic elements. Some unease about seiðr stems from the lack of criteria for verifying whether a seiðr practitioner has genuinely received divine communication, and concerns that some may use it to bolster their own prestige.
Galdr
Galdr is another Heathen practice involving chanting. During a galdr ceremony, participants may chant runes or rune poems to create a communal atmosphere, enter altered states of consciousness, and seek communication with the gods. Some contemporary galdr songs and chants are influenced by Anglo-Saxon magical folk charms, such as Æcerbot and the Nine Herbs Charm. Although these poems were originally composed in a Christian context, practitioners believe they reflect themes from pre-Christian, shamanic religion and have adapted them for modern Heathen use.
Divination and Magic
Some Heathens practise divination using runes, drawing items inscribed with runic symbols from a bag or bundle and interpreting them accordingly. Certain runes may be associated with specific deities, one of the nine realms, or aspects of life. Most Heathens use the Elder Futhark as their runic alphabet, though some prefer the Anglo-Saxon Futhorc or the Younger Futhark. Non-Heathens also use runes for divination, and books on the topic are commonly found in New Age bookstores.
While some Heathens practise magic, it is not considered a core element of Heathenry, as magic was not a significant part of pre-Christian rituals in Iron Age and early medieval Germanic Europe.
Heathen Festivals
Traditional and Seasonal Festivals
Different Germanic Neopagan groups celebrate various festivals depending on their cultural and religious focus. The most widespread Heathen festivals are Winternights, Yule, and Sigrblót, all listed in Heimskringla, marking them as ancient in origin. Winternights signals the start of winter in Northern Europe, Yule marks midwinter, and Sigrblót celebrates the beginning of summer.
Other festivals are held throughout the year, often to commemorate individuals who resisted the Christianisation of Northern Europe or who led armies and settlers to new lands. Some Heathen groups hold festivals dedicated to specific deities.
Certain Heathens observe the eight festivals of the Wheel of the Year, a tradition shared with Wiccans and other contemporary Pagan groups. Others celebrate only six festivals, represented by a six-spoked wheel of the year. Critics within the Heathen community argue that this system is a modern construct from the mid-20th century and lacks connections to the original religious celebrations of pre-Christian Germanic societies.
Celebration Practices
Heathen festivals may occur on fixed dates each year, though communities often celebrate them on the nearest weekend to accommodate working participants. During ceremonies, Heathens frequently recite poems honouring the gods, often drawing from or imitating early medieval Old Norse or Old English poetry. Mead or ale is commonly consumed, and offerings are made to the gods, often accompanied by lighting fires, torches, or candles.
Regional gatherings, known as Things, also occur, featuring religious rituals, workshops, stalls, feasts, and competitions. In the U.S., two major national assemblies are Althing and Trothmoot.
Racial Issues
Divisions Over Race
Racial issues represent a significant source of division within the Heathen community, particularly in the United States. Views on race range from seeing it as a matter of biological inheritance to treating it as a cultural construct rooted in heritage. These positions are referred to in U.S. Heathen discourse as folkish (emphasising race) and universalist (open to all ethnic backgrounds). Kaplan described these as "racist" and "non-racist" camps, noting a "virtual civil war" within the American Heathen community. While this binary division has influenced other countries, it has had less impact in ethnically homogenous regions like Iceland. A 2015 survey found that a greater number of Heathens worldwide adhere to universalist ideas than folkish ones.
Gardell’s Tripartite Division
Religious historian Mattias Gardell divides Heathens in the U.S. into three groups based on their stance on race:
- Antiracist Group: Denounces any connection between religion and racial identity.
- Radically Racist Faction: Views Heathenry as the natural religion of the Aryan race, excluding other racial groups.
- Ethnicist Group: Takes a middle ground, acknowledging the religion’s roots in Northern Europe and its connection to people of Northern European descent without overt racism.
Religious studies scholar Stefanie von Schnurbein adopted Gardell’s framework, labelling these as "a-racist," "racial-religious," and "ethnicist" factions.
Universalist and Antiracist Perspective
Universalist and antiracist Heathens believe the gods of Germanic Europe can call anyone to their worship, regardless of ethnic background. This group rejects the folkish emphasis on race, arguing that it can unintentionally foster racism against those of non-Northern European descent. Universalists highlight historical evidence of intermarriage and cultural blending in ancient Northern Europe, as well as myths in which the Æsir intermarry with the Vanir, Jötnar, and humans.
Universalists welcome practitioners from diverse backgrounds, including Jewish and African-American members of the U.S.-based Troth organisation. Many of its white members have spouses from other racial groups. While some Universalists retain the idea of Heathenry as an indigenous religion, they argue it is indigenous to Northern Europe rather than tied to a specific race. Universalists frequently express frustration with media portrayals of Heathenry as inherently racist and use online platforms to distance themselves from far-right ideologies.
Folkish Perspective
Folkish Heathens see Heathenry as the native religion of a biologically distinct race, often referred to as "white," "Nordic," or "Aryan." Proponents claim the religion is inseparably linked to the collective unconscious of this race. Stephen McNallen, a prominent American Heathen, developed this idea into a concept called "metagenetics."
While McNallen and other "ethnicist" Heathens deny being racist, Gardell observed that their views meet certain definitions of racism. Many "ethnicist" Heathens are ethnic nationalists who disapprove of multiculturalism and racial mixing in modern Europe and advocate for racial segregation. Folkish discourse frequently invokes themes of "ancestry" and "homelands," though these terms are often vaguely defined. Folkish Heathens are highly critical of universalists, accusing them of being misled by New Age ideas and political correctness.
The "ethnicist" faction faces criticism from both universalist and explicitly racist groups: the former sees "ethnic" Heathenry as a guise for racism, while the latter denounces its proponents as traitors for not fully endorsing white supremacy.
Radically Racist Faction
Some folkish Heathens are explicit white supremacists and racists, forming a "radically racist" faction that favours terms like Odinism, Wotanism, and Wodenism. According to Kaplan, this faction occupies "the outermost fringes" of modern Heathenry.
The boundaries between this form of Heathenry and Nazism are "extremely thin," with adherents venerating Adolf Hitler and Nazi Germany, claiming the white race is threatened by a Jewish world conspiracy, and rejecting Christianity as a creation of the Jews. Many members of The Order, a white supremacist militia active in the 1980s, identified as Odinists, and various racist Heathens have adopted the "Fourteen Words" slogan developed by Order member David Lane.
Some white supremacist organisations, such as the Order of Nine Angles and the Black Order, merge elements of Heathenry with Satanism. However, others, like Ron McVan of Wotansvolk, reject the integration of these religions.
History
Romantic and Völkisch Precursors
In the late 18th and 19th centuries, German Romanticism increasingly turned its focus to the pre-Christian belief systems of Germanic Europe, with various Romantic intellectuals arguing that these ancient religions were "more natural, organic, and positive" than Christianity. This view was supported by the scholarship of Romantic figures such as Johann Gottfried Herder and the Brothers Grimm, Jacob and Wilhelm. This development coincided with a rise in nationalism and the concept of the Volk, contributing to the emergence of the völkisch movement in German-speaking Europe.
The Germanist Ernst Wachler, critical of Christianity's Jewish roots, published a pamphlet in 1900 calling for the revival of a racially based ancient German religion. Authors like Ludwig Fahrenkrog supported his ideas, leading to the establishment of groups such as the Bund für Persönlichkeitskultur and the Germanische Glaubensgemeinschaft in 1912.
Another strand of Heathenry emerged from the occult-völkisch movement known as Ariosophy. One of its proponents, the Austrian occultist Guido von List, created a religion he called "Wotanism" with an inner core termed "Armanism." List's Wotanism drew heavily from the Eddas but became increasingly influenced by Theosophy. His ideas were popularised in Germany by right-wing figures, with followers helping to found groups like the Reichshammerbund and the Germanenorden, which later gave rise to the Thule Society. The Thule Society, founded by Rudolf von Sebottendorf, promoted a Theosophically tinged interpretation of Norse mythology.
In 1933, the eclectic German Faith Movement was founded by religious studies scholar Jakob Wilhelm Hauer, seeking to unify these disparate Heathen groups. Although active throughout the Nazi era, Hauer’s hopes that his "German Faith" would become the official religion of Nazi Germany were never realised. During its peak in the 1920s, the Heathen movement likely never had more than a few thousand adherents but enjoyed support from many middle-class intellectuals, including journalists, artists, and academics, thus exerting broader influence on German society.
The völkisch occultists—including Heathens like List and Christians like Jörg Lanz von Liebenfels—significantly contributed to the ideological climate of the Nazi era. Few directly influenced the Nazi leadership, with one notable exception: Karl Maria Wiligut, a friend of Heinrich Himmler, the head of the SS. Wiligut claimed ancestral memories of ancient Germanic society and promoted the idea that "Wotanism" had been at odds with "Irminism," a religion dedicated to a messianic Germanic figure named Krist, who was later distorted into the figure of Jesus.
Many Heathen groups dissolved during the Nazi era and could only re-establish themselves in West Germany after World War II, where religious freedom was restored. After the defeat of Nazism, völkisch ideas and groups were heavily stigmatised, and the mythologies of pre-Christian Germanic societies were widely seen as tainted by their association with the Nazi regime—an attitude that persisted to some extent into the 21st century.
In Norway during the 1930s, the völkisch movement was reflected in groups such as the Ragnarok Circle and the journal Tidsskriftet Ragnarok by Hans S. Jacobsen. Figures like writer Per Imerslund and composer Geirr Tveitt were prominent in this milieu, though no successors emerged in postwar Norway. A version of "Odinism" was developed by Australian Alexander Rud Mills, who published The Odinist Religion (1930) and founded the Anglecyn Church of Odin. Mills, who held racist political views, considered Odinism a religion for the "British race," which he saw as engaged in a cosmic struggle with Jewish-Christian religion. Mills was heavily influenced by the writings of List, having formulated his own blend of Ariosophy.
Some roots of Heathenry can also be traced to the early 20th-century "back-to-nature" movement, including organisations like Kibbo Kift and the Order of Woodcraft Chivalry.
Modern Development
In the early 1970s, Heathen organisations began to emerge independently in the UK, the United States, Canada, Australia, and Iceland. This development was partly influenced by the broader growth of the modern Pagan movement in the 1960s and 1970s, as well as the rise of the New Age milieu, which encouraged the formation of new religious movements seeking to revive pre-Christian belief systems.
By the 1990s and 2000s, additional Heathen groups formed, many distancing themselves from overt political agendas and focusing more on historical authenticity than their predecessors of the 1960s and 1970s.
Heathenry in the U.S.
Modern Heathenry in the United States began in the 1960s. In 1969, Danish Heathen Else Christensen founded the Odinist Fellowship in her Florida home. Influenced by Mills, she began publishing The Odinist, a newsletter emphasising far-right and racist ideas over theology. Stephen McNallen founded the Viking Brotherhood in the early 1970s before establishing the Asatru Free Assembly in 1976. This group dissolved in 1986 amid widespread political disagreements after McNallen rejected Neo-Nazis within the organisation. In the 1990s, McNallen founded the Asatru Folk Assembly (AFA), an ethnically focused Heathen group based in California.
Meanwhile, Valgard Murray and his relatives in Arizona founded the Ásatrú Alliance (AA) in the late 1980s, sharing the AFA’s racial views and publishing the newsletter Vor Tru. In 1987, Stephen Flowers and James Chisholm established The Troth, which became an inclusive, non-racist organisation with an international reach.
Heathenry in Iceland
In Iceland, pre-Christian belief systems continued to influence cultural heritage into the 20th century. Farmer Sveinbjörn Beinteinsson founded the Heathen group Ásatrúarfélagið in 1972, initially with 12 members. Beinteinsson served as allsherjargodi (high priest) until his death in 1993, succeeded by Jörmundur Ingi Hansen. Under Hansen’s leadership, the group grew but faced divisions, leading to his resignation in 2003. Hilmar Örn Hilmarsson then became leader, and by that time, Ásatrúarfélagið had 777 members and played a visible role in Icelandic society.
Heathenry in Other Countries
In the UK, John Yeowell founded the British Committee for the Restoration of the Odinic Rite in 1972. Sweden saw the formation of Heathen groups in the 1970s, such as the Breidablikk-Gildet in 1975 and Telge Fylking in 1987. The Sveriges Asatrosamfund (Swedish Asatru Assembly) was founded in 1994 and became the largest Heathen organisation in the country. In Norway, the Åsatrufellesskapet Bifrost was founded in 1996, followed by the Forn Sed Norge in 1998. In Denmark, Forn Siðr emerged in the 1990s.
In Germany, groups like Rabenclan (1994) and Nornirs Ætt (2005) explicitly rejected the völkisch and far-right past of the religion. International Heathen organisations also established a presence in Germany, such as the Odinic Rite Deutschland and the Eldaring.
Heathenry in Popular Culture
Heathen influences appeared in 1990s Black Metal, whose themes often expressed a longing for a pre-Christian "Nordic past." The Pagan Metal genre played a key role in the Northern European Pagan scene, with many musicians practising Heathenry and embodying the heroic masculinity of Norse mythological figures like Odin and Thor. Heathen themes also emerged in Neofolk music.
From the mid-1990s onward, the internet greatly facilitated the global spread of Heathenry. During this period, racist Heathenry also grew significantly within the U.S. prison system, partly as a result of outreach programmes initiated by Heathen groups. Additionally, Heathen organisations increasingly collaborated with ethnically oriented Pagan groups in Eastern Europe, such as Lithuania’s Romuva, and joined the World Congress of Ethnic Religions when it was founded in 1998.
Demographic Development
Global Distribution
Heathen practitioners can be found in Europe, North America, Australasia, and, more recently, in Latin America—primarily in areas with a Germanic cultural heritage but also in other regions. In 2007, religious scholar Graham Harvey noted that it was impossible to determine an exact global count of Heathens. A self-reported census in 2013 recorded 16,700 members across 98 countries, with the majority residing in the United States. By 2016, Stefanie von Schnurbein estimated that there were likely no more than 20,000 Heathens worldwide.
Schnurbein observed that most Heathen groups comprised 60–70% men, though there were exceptions. Sociologist Joshua Marcus Cragle confirmed that the religion had a higher proportion of men than women but found a more balanced gender ratio in Northern and Western Europe compared to other regions. Cragle also reported that the Heathen community had a higher proportion of transgender individuals (2%) than the general population. Similarly, 21% of Heathens identified as LGBT, a higher percentage than in the general population but lower than in other forms of modern Paganism. Cragle found that, except in Latin America, most Heathens were middle-aged and of European descent.
Many Heathens report being drawn to the religion due to childhood interests in Germanic folklore or Norse mythology, while others cite portrayals of Norse religion in popular culture. Some claim they turned to the faith after direct revelations through dreams, which they interpret as messages from the gods. While many Heathens describe a sense of "coming home" upon joining the religion, scholar Calico noted that this narrative was not typical for most U.S. Heathens. Researcher Murphy Pizza suggested that many Euro-American practitioners join the movement both out of a desire to find "roots" in historical European cultures and to satisfy a genuine need for spiritual connection and community.
Cragle’s 2015 survey revealed that 45% of Heathens were raised in Christian households, while 21% previously had no religious affiliation or identified as atheists or agnostics. Practitioners generally live in predominantly Christian societies but often feel that Christianity offers them little. In the U.S., researchers Snook, Thad Horrell, and Kristen Horton observed that Heathens almost always formulate oppositional identities against Christianity. Schnurbein noted that many European Heathens in the 1980s were motivated by an anti-Christian ethos, though this attitude has diminished as the influence of Christian churches in Western countries declined. Conversely, in 2018, Calico found that "deep antipathy" toward Christianity remained prevalent among American Heathens, often expressed through humour.
Many Heathens also engage in historical reenactments, focusing on the early medieval societies of Germanic Europe, though some practitioners criticise this practice for blurring the line between reality and fantasy. Some Heathens combine their faith with other Pagan traditions, such as Wicca or Druidry, but others reject these as overly syncretic.
North America
The United States is home to what is likely the world’s largest Heathen community. Sociologist Jeffrey Kaplan, while considering it impossible to calculate the exact size of the U.S. Heathen population, estimated in the mid-1990s that there were about 500 active practitioners and another thousand on the movement's periphery. Kaplan found that the overwhelming majority of U.S. Heathens were white, male, and young, with most having at least a college education and working in a mix of white-collar and blue-collar jobs.
The Pagan Census Project, led by Helen A. Berger, Evan A. Leach, and Leigh S. Shaffer, received 60 responses from Heathens in the U.S., 65% of whom were male and 35% female. The researchers noted this was the "reverse" of the female-majority trend in the broader Pagan community. Most respondents were college-educated but generally less so than the wider Pagan population, and they also reported lower average incomes. Based on her experience within the community, Snook agreed that the majority of U.S. Heathens were male, most were white, and many were middle-aged. However, she noted that the proportion of female Heathens in the U.S. had grown since the mid-1990s.
Later estimates suggested larger numbers, ranging from 10,000–20,000 practitioners according to Stephen McNallen in 2006, and 7,878 in the 2014 census. In 2018, religious scholar Jefferson F. Calico estimated there were likely between 8,000 and 20,000 Heathens in the U.S.
Europe
In the 2001 UK census, 300 individuals in England and Wales identified as Heathens. Many followed the advice of the Pagan Federation (PF) and identified simply as "Pagan," while others chose not to specify their religious beliefs. By the 2011 census, 1,958 individuals in England and Wales identified as Heathens.
In Iceland, the Heathen organisation Ásatrúarfélagið had 777 members in 2003, growing to 2,400 members in 2015 and 3,583 by January 2017, representing just over 1% of the Icelandic population. Heathenry in Iceland has a greater cultural impact than its membership numbers might suggest. Based on his research with Danish Heathens, Amster noted that while it is possible to count the membership of Heathen organisations, estimating the number of unaffiliated practitioners is "impossible." Conversely, Gregorius estimated in 2015 that there were at most 1,000 Heathens in Sweden, both affiliated and unaffiliated, but noted that practitioners often overestimated their numbers. While no definitive data on gender ratios exists, Gregorius cited claims from practitioners that Swedish Heathen organisations were male-dominated. Schnurbein found that most Scandinavian Heathens were middle-class professionals aged between 30 and 60.
Small numbers of Heathens exist in Poland, where they maintain a social media presence. Most Polish Heathens belong to the non-racist branch of the movement. A handful of Heathens can also be found in Slovenia, where they are outnumbered by adherents of Slavic paganism. Heathen practitioners also appear on Serbian websites, while in Russia, several far-right groups blend elements of Heathenry with Slavic paganism and Russian Orthodox Christianity. There is also a small Heathen presence in Israel.