Valkyrie
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In Norse mythology, a valkyrie ("chooser of the slain") is one of the many female figures who decide the fate of fallen Norse warriors, guiding their souls along one of two paths. Half of those who die in battle are taken to Fólkvangr, Freyja’s afterlife realm, while the other half go to the gods’ hall of Valhalla. There, the deceased warriors become einherjar (Old Norse: "lone fighters"). When the einherjar are not preparing for the events of Ragnarök, the valkyries serve them mead. Valkyries also appear as lovers of heroes and other mortals, sometimes described as the daughters of kings, and are often associated with ravens, swans, or horses.
Valkyries are mentioned in the Poetic Edda (a collection of poems compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources), the Prose Edda, the Heimskringla (both written by Snorri Sturluson), and the Njáls saga (one of the Icelandic sagas), all composed or compiled in the 13th century. They also appear in skaldic poetry, a 14th-century charm, and various runic inscriptions.
The Old English term wælcyrġe, related to the Old Norse valkyrja, appears in several Old English manuscripts. Scholars have debated whether the term entered Old English through Norse influence or reflects a native tradition among the Anglo-Saxon heathens. Theories have been proposed about the relationship between valkyries, the Norns, and the dísir, all of whom are supernatural figures associated with fate. Archaeological finds across Scandinavia have uncovered amulets believed to depict valkyries. In modern culture, valkyries are the subjects of artworks, musical compositions, comics, video games, and poems.
Etymology
The word "valkyrie" derives from the Old Norse valkyrja (plural: valkyrjur), a compound of the noun valr (referring to those slain on the battlefield) and the verb kjósa ("to choose"). Together, they mean "chooser of the slain." The Old Norse valkyrja is cognate with Old English wælcyrġe. The philologist Vladimir Orel reconstructed the Proto-Germanic form as walakuzjǭ from the Old English and Old Norse forms. However, it is possible that the term was borrowed from Old Norse into Old English; see the discussion in the section on Old Norse attestations below.
Other terms for valkyries in Old Norse sources include óskmey ("wish-maiden"), which appears in the poem Oddrúnargrátr, and Óðins meyjar ("Odin’s maidens"), mentioned in the Nafnaþulur. Óskmey may be related to Odin’s name Óski (meaning approximately "wish-granter"), referring to his role in receiving slain warriors in Valhalla.
The name Randalín, used by Aslaug in Ragnars saga loðbrókar when she joins her sons to avenge her brothers Agnarr and Eric in Sweden, likely derives from Randa-Hlín, meaning "shield-goddess," a term for "valkyrie."
Old Norse Attestations
Poetic Edda
Valkyries appear in the poems Völuspá, Grímnismál, Völundarkviða, Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, Helgakviða Hundingsbana II, and Sigrdrífumál in the Poetic Edda.
Völuspá and Grímnismál
In stanza 30 of Völuspá, a völva (a wandering seeress in Norse society) tells Odin that she saw "valkyries coming from afar, ready to ride to the realm of the gods." The völva then lists six valkyries: Skuld (Old Norse, possibly meaning "debt" or "future"), who "carried a shield," Skögul ("shaker"), Gunnr ("war"), Hildr ("battle"), Göndul ("wand-wielder"), and Geirskögul ("spear-skögul"). She concludes by saying she has listed "the ladies of the warlord, ready to ride as valkyries over the earth."
In Grímnismál, Odin (disguised as Grímnir), tortured, starving, and thirsty, tells the young Agnar that he wishes for the valkyries Hrist ("shaker") and Mist ("cloud") to "bring him a [drinking] horn" and follows this with a list of 11 other valkyries who, he says, "bring beer to the einherjar": Skeggjöld ("axe-age"), Skögul, Hildr, Þrúðr ("strength"), Hlökk ("noise" or "battle"), Herfjötur ("army-fetter"), Göll ("tumult"), Geirahöð ("spear-battle"), Randgríð ("shield-truce"), Ráðgríð ("counsel-truce"), and Reginleif ("power-legacy").
Völundarkviða
In a prose introduction to the poem Völundarkviða, it is told that the brothers Slagfiðr, Egil, and Völund lived in a house in a place called Úlfdalir ("Wolf Dales"). There, early one morning, the brothers discovered three women spinning linen on the shores of Úlfsjár ("Wolf Lake"), with their swan cloaks lying nearby—these women were valkyries. Two of them, daughters of King Hlödvér, were named Hlaðguðr svanhvít ("swan white") and Hervör alvitr (possibly meaning "all-wise" or "strange being"). The third, daughter of Kjarr of Valland, was named Ölrún (possibly meaning "ale rune"). The brothers took the three women back to their hall—Egil paired with Ölrún, Slagfiðr with Hlaðguðr svanhvít, and Völund with Hervör alvitr. They lived together for seven winters until the women left to join a battle and did not return. Egil donned snowshoes to search for Ölrún, Slagfiðr went in search of Hlaðguðr svanhvít, and Völund stayed behind in Úlfdalir.
Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar
In the poem Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar, a prose narrative recounts that a nameless, silent young man, the son of the Norwegian King Hjörvarðr and Sigrlinn of Sváfaland, sat on a burial mound and watched nine valkyries riding by. One of them stood out to him in particular. This valkyrie was later described in another prose narrative as Sváva, the daughter of King Eylimi, who "had often protected him in battle." The valkyrie addressed the nameless young man and gave him the name Helgi (meaning "the holy one"). The previously silent Helgi spoke, calling the valkyrie a "bright-faced lady" and asking her what gift came with the name she had bestowed upon him, saying he would not accept it unless she also became his. The valkyrie told him of a hoard of swords in Sigarsholm, one of which was of particular significance, which she described in detail.
Later in the poem, Atli taunted the Jötunn Hrímgerðr while in her company. Hrímgerðr claimed she had seen 27 valkyries surrounding Helgi, with one especially beautiful valkyrie leading the group:
Three times nine maidens, but one rode ahead,
bright-skinned beneath her helmet;
the horses trembled, from their manes
dew fell into the deep valleys,
hail into the high forests;
from there comes fortune to mankind;
all I saw was hateful to me.
After Hrímgerðr was turned to stone by daylight, the prose narrative continues that Helgi, now a king, approached Sváva's father—King Eylim—and asked for her hand. Helgi and Sváva were betrothed and loved one another dearly. Sváva stayed home with King Eylimi, while Helgi went on raids. The narrative adds that Sváva "was a valkyrie, as she had been before." The poem continues, detailing various events, and Helgi ultimately dies from a wound received in battle. A prose narrative at the end of the poem states that Helgi and his valkyrie wife Sváva "were said to have been reborn."
Helgakviða Hundingsbana I
In the poem Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, the hero Helgi Hundingsbane sits on the corpse-strewn battlefield of Logafjöll. A light shines from the slain, and lightning flashes from this light. From the sky, helmeted valkyries appear. Their waist-length chainmail is soaked in blood, and their spears gleam brightly:
Then light shone from Logafell,
and from that radiance, flashes came;
in Himingvani they wore helmets [the valkyries arrived].
Their chainmail was blood-soaked;
beams shone from their spears.
In the following stanza, Helgi addresses the valkyries (whom he refers to as "southern goddesses") and asks if they would like to come home with the warriors when night falls (as arrows continue to fly). After the battle, the valkyrie Sigrún ("victory rune") tells Helgi from her horse that her father, Högni, has betrothed her to Höðbroddr, the son of King Granmar of the Hniflung clan, whom Sigrún finds unworthy. Helgi gathers a massive army to ride into the Battle of Frekastein against the Hniflung clan to help Sigrún and prevent her marriage. Later in the poem, the hero Sinfjötli taunts Guðmundr. Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of once being female and mocks him as "a witch, horrid, unnatural, among Odin's valkyries," adding that all the einherjar "had to fight because of you, headstrong woman." Later in the poem, the term "the airy sea of valkyries" is used to mean "mist."
Toward the end of the poem, valkyries once again descend from the sky, this time to protect Helgi during the Battle of Frekastein. After the battle, all the valkyries fly away, except for Sigrún and the wolves (referred to as the "troll-woman's steed"), who consume the corpses:
Helmeted valkyries came down from the sky
-the noise of spears grew loud- they protected the prince;
then Sigrún spoke—the wound-bringing valkyries flew,
the troll-woman's steed feasted on the ravens' meal:
After the victory, Sigrún promised Helgi that he would become a great ruler and pledged herself to him.
Helgakviða Hundingsbana II
At the beginning of Helgakviða Hundingsbana II, a prose narrative recounts that King Sigmund (son of Völsung) and his wife Borghild (of Brálund) had a son named Helgi, whom they named after Helgi Hjörvarðsson (the protagonist of the earlier Helgakviða Hjörvarðssonar). After Helgi killed King Hunding in stanza 4, he fled, according to a prose narrative, consuming the raw flesh of cattle he had slaughtered by the shore, where he encountered Sigrún. Sigrún, the daughter of King Högni, was a valkyrie who "rode through air and sea," and she was the reincarnated valkyrie Sváva. In stanza 7, Sigrún uses the phrase "fed the gosling of Gunn’s sisters." Gunnr and her sisters are valkyries, and these "goslings" are ravens feeding on the corpses left by warriors on the battlefield.
After stanza 18, a prose narrative tells how Helgi and his vast fleet set sail for Frekastein but encountered a massive storm. Lightning struck one of the ships. The fleet saw nine valkyries flying through the air, among whom they recognized Sigrún. The storm subsided, and the fleet safely landed. Helgi died in battle but returned once from Valhalla to visit Sigrún in a burial mound. At the end of the poem, a prose epilogue explains that Sigrún later died of grief. The epilogue notes that in the pagan religion, there was a belief, "now considered a fairy tale," that people could be reborn, and that Helgi and Sigrún were said to have been reborn as another Helgi and valkyrie pair: Helgi as Helgi Haddingjaskaði and Sigrún as the daughter of Halfdan, the valkyrie Kára. The epilogue mentions that further information about them could be found in the now-lost Káruljóð.
Sigrdrífumál
In the prose introduction to the poem Sigrdrífumál, the hero Sigurd rides onto Hindarfell and travels south to the "land of the Franks." On the mountain, Sigurd sees a great light, "as if fire blazed, reaching up to the heavens." Sigurd approaches the light and finds a skjaldborg (a shield-wall) with a banner flying over it. Entering the shield-wall, Sigurd finds a sleeping warrior lying there, fully armed. Sigurd removes the warrior’s helmet and sees the face of a woman. Her corset is so tight that it seems fused to her body. Using his sword Gram, Sigurd cuts the corset, starting at the neckline, slicing down the sleeves, and freeing her from it.
The woman awakens, sits up, looks at Sigurd, and the two converse in two stanzas. In the second stanza, the woman explains that Odin had placed her under a sleep-spell she could not break, and as a result, she had slept for a long time. Sigurd asks her name, and the woman gives Sigurd a horn of mead so he may remember her words. She then recites a pagan prayer in two stanzas. A prose narrative explains that the woman is named Sigrdrífa and that she is a valkyrie.
The narrative continues, with Sigrdrífa explaining to Sigurd that there were two kings who fought against each other. Odin had promised victory to one of them, Hjalmgunnar, but she had "felled him in battle." In response, Odin pricked her with a sleep-thorn, told her she would never again "win victory in battle," and cursed her to marriage. Sigrdrífa replied to Odin that she had sworn a great oath never to marry a man who knows fear. Sigurd asks Sigrdrífa to share her wisdom about all the worlds. The poem continues in verse, where Sigrdrífa imparts knowledge to Sigurd about the carving of runes, mystical wisdom, and prophecies.
Prose Edda
In the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, valkyries are first mentioned in Chapter 36 of Gylfaginning. The enthroned figure of High tells Gangleri (King Gylfi in disguise) about the activities of the valkyries and mentions certain goddesses. High states: "There are others whose task it is to serve in Valhalla. They bring the drink and look after the table and the beer cups." High then quotes a stanza from the poem Grímnismál that lists several valkyries. High continues: "These women are called valkyries, and they are sent by Odin to every battle to choose which men shall die and to decide who shall win." High adds that Gunnr ("war"), Róta, and Skuld—the last of whom he describes as "the youngest of the Norns"—"always ride to select the slain and decide the outcome of the battle." In Chapter 49, High describes how, when Odin and his wife Frigg attended the funeral of their slain son Baldr, the valkyries and Odin's ravens accompanied them.
References to valkyries also appear in the Skáldskaparmál, a section of the Prose Edda that explains skaldic poetry. In Chapter 2, a quote from the 10th-century poem Húsdrápa by the skald Úlfr Uggason is described. The poem recounts mythological scenes depicted in a newly built hall, including valkyries and ravens accompanying Odin to the funeral feast for Baldr:
There I saw valkyries and ravens,
who accompanied the wise victory-tree [Odin]
to the drink of the holy offering [Baldr’s funeral feast].
These motifs have been displayed therein.
Later in Chapter 2, a quote from the anonymous 10th-century poem Eiríksmál is included (see the Fagrskinna section below for further details about the poem and another translation):
What is this dream, Odin?
I dreamt I rose before dawn
to clean Valhalla of slain men.
I awakened the einherjar,
ordered them to rise, to strew the benches,
and clean the beer cups,
for valkyries to serve wine
for the arrival of a prince.
In Chapter 31, poetic terms for a woman include "a woman may also be called an ásynja or valkyrie or Norn or dísir." In Chapter 41, as the hero Sigurd rides his horse Grani, he comes across a building on a mountain. Inside, Sigurd finds a sleeping woman wearing a helmet and chainmail. Sigurd cuts away her mail coat, and she awakens. She tells him her name is Hildr, "also known as Brynhildr and she was a valkyrie."
In Chapter 48, poetic terms for "battle" include "storm of weapons or shields, or of Odin or valkyries or war-kings, or their clash or din," followed by examples from compositions by various skalds using the names of valkyries in this way (e.g., Þorbjörn Hornklofi uses "Skögul's din" for "battlefield," Bersi Skáldtorfuson uses "Gunnr's fire" for "sword" and "Hlökk's snow" for "battle," Einarr Skúlason uses "Hildr's sail" for "shield" and "Göndul's destructive wind" for "battle," and Einarr skálaglamm uses "Göndul's din"). Chapter 49 provides similar information about weapons and armor, using the term valmeyjar ("death maidens") instead of valkyries, along with further examples. In Chapter 57, a list of ásynjur names (after listing alternative names for the goddess Freyja) includes another section listing Odin's maids, the valkyries: Hildr, Göndul, Hlökk, Mist, Skögul, and then four additional names: Hrund, Eir, Hrist, and Skuld. The section adds that "they are called Norns who shape necessity."
Some manuscripts of the Nafnaþulur section of Skáldskaparmál contain an extended list of 29 valkyrie names (referred to as "Valkyries of Viðrir," a name for Odin). In the first stanza, these names include: Hrist, Mist, Herja, Hlökk, Geiravör, Göll, Hjörþrimul, Guðr, Herfjötra, Skuld, Geirönul, Skögul, and Randgníð. The second stanza lists: Ráðgríðr, Göndul, Svipul, Geirskögul, Hildr, Skeggöld, Hrund, Geirdriful, Randgríðr, Þrúðr, Reginleif, Sveið, Þögn, Hjalmþrimul, Þrima, and Skalmöld.
Hrafnsmál
The fragmentary skaldic poem Hrafnsmál (commonly attributed to the 9th-century Norwegian skald Þorbjörn Hornklofi) features a conversation between a valkyrie and a raven, primarily recounting the life and deeds of Harald I of Norway. The poem begins with a request for silence among nobles so that the skald may recount the deeds of Harald Fairhair. The narrator states that he once overheard a "high-minded," "golden-haired," and "white-armed" maiden conversing with a "bright-beaked raven." The valkyrie is described as wise, understanding the language of birds, having a white throat and sparkling eyes, and possessing no interest in men:
Wise she was, the valkyrie; welcome they never were,
the men of bright eyes, she who knows well the bird’s speech.
The bright-lashed maiden, the lily-throated woman greeted
Hymir’s skull-splitter as it perched on the rock.
The valkyrie, described earlier as beautiful, then speaks to the blood-soaked raven, who hungers for corpses:
"How is it, ravens, where do you come from now
with bloody beaks at the break of dawn?
Carrion-scent you carry, and your claws are bloody.
Were you nearby during the night, where you knew of the corpses?"
The black raven shakes itself and replies that it and the other ravens have followed Harald since hatching from their eggs. The raven expresses surprise that the valkyrie does not know of Harald’s deeds and recounts his exploits in several stanzas. In stanza 15, a question-and-answer exchange begins, with the valkyrie posing questions about Harald, which the raven answers. This continues until the poem abruptly ends.
Njáls Saga
In chapter 157 of the Njáls Saga, a man named Dörruð witnesses twelve figures riding together to a stone hut on Good Friday in Caithness. The twelve enter the hut, and Dörruð can no longer see them. He approaches the hut and peers through a crack in the wall. Inside, Dörruð sees women assembling a peculiar loom: the heads of men serve as weights, men’s entrails as warp and weft, a sword as the shuttle, and arrows as the beams. The women sing a song called Darraðarljóð, which Dörruð memorizes.
The song comprises 11 stanzas in which the valkyries weave and select who will be slain in the Battle of Clontarf (fought outside Dublin in 1014 CE). Of the twelve weaving valkyries, six are named in the song: Hildr, Hjörþrimul, Sanngriðr, Svipul, Guðr, and Göndul. In stanza 9 of the song, they sing:
Dreadful it is now, without being,
while blood-red wefts speed across the sky;
the world is bloodied with warriors’ gore,
as we valkyries sang war-songs.
At the end of the poem, the valkyries sing: "We ride swiftly away on unsaddled steeds, wielding swords in battle." The prose narrative resumes, stating that the valkyries tear the loom into pieces. Each valkyrie keeps hold of what she is holding. Dörruð leaves the crack in the wall and rides home, while the women mount their horses and ride away—six to the south and six to the north.
Heimskringla
At the end of the Heimskringla saga Hákonar saga góða, the poem Hákonarmál by the 10th-century skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is featured.
The saga recounts the death of King Haakon I of Norway in battle. Although a Christian, Haakon requests that since "he died among heathens, they should give him a burial fitting for their customs." The saga explains that Haakon was mourned equally by friends and foes shortly after his death on the same rock slab where he had been born. His friends transported his body north to Sæheim in Nordhordland, where he was buried in a large burial mound, fully armed and dressed in his finest clothes, but without other valuables. His grave was marked by words "fit for sending him on the way to Valhalla according to pagan custom." This leads into the poem Hákonarmál.
In Hákonarmál, Odin sends two valkyries, Göndul and Skögul, to "choose among the kin of kings" who will dwell in Valhalla with Odin. A fierce battle ensues with great slaughter, and part of the description uses the phrase "Skögul’s storm wind" for "battle." Haakon and his men die in the fight and see the valkyrie Göndul leaning on a spear shaft. Göndul remarks that "now the gods’ retinue grows, as Haakon is brought home with a host of sacred gods’ heads." Haakon hears "what the valkyries said," and they are described as sitting high on horseback, wearing helmets and shields, and being wisely borne by their horses. A short exchange follows between Haakon and the valkyrie Skögul:
Haakon said:
"Why did Geirskogul deny us victory,
though we deserved the gods’ grant of it?"
Skögul spoke:
"It is our doing that the fight was won,
and your foes fled."
Skögul states that she will now ride to the "green dwellings of the gods" to tell Odin that the king will come to Valhalla. The poem continues, depicting Haakon becoming one of the einherjar in Valhalla, where he awaits the battle against the monstrous wolf Fenrir.
Fagrskinna
In chapter 8 of the Fagrskinna, a prose narrative describes how Gunnhild, the mother of kings, commissioned a poem about her late husband, Eric Bloodaxe, after his death. This composition, known as Eiríksmál, was authored by an anonymous poet in the 10th century and recounts Eric Bloodaxe and five other kings arriving in Valhalla after their deaths. The poem begins with comments from Odin (Óðinn in Old Norse):
"What dream is this," said Óðinn,
"in which, just before dawn,
I thought I was clearing Valhǫll,
crowded with slain men?
I woke the einherjar
and commanded the valkyries to rise,
to spread the benches
and wash the cups,
to bring wine,
as if for the arrival of a king.
Here I expect
heroes from the world to come,
certain great ones,
so glad is my heart."
The god Bragi asks where a thunderous noise is coming from, noting that the benches of Valhalla are creaking—perhaps as though the god Baldr had returned to Valhalla—and that it sounds like the movement of thousands. Odin responds that Bragi knows full well the noise heralds the arrival of Eric Bloodaxe, who will soon come to Valhalla. Odin commands the heroes Sigmund and Sinfjötli to rise, welcome Eric, and invite him into the hall, should it indeed be he.
Ragnhild Tregagás' Spell
During a witch trial in 1324 in Bergen, Norway, a spell was mentioned that the accused, Ragnhild Tregagás, had allegedly used to break up the marriage of her former lover, a man named Bárd. The spell includes a reference to the valkyrie Göndul, who is "sent forth":
"I send forth the spirits of (the valkyrie) Gondul.
May the first bite you in the back.
May the second bite you in the chest.
May the third direct hatred and envy towards you."
Old English Records
The Old English term wælcyrġe appears multiple times in Old English manuscripts, often used to translate foreign terms. It is found in the sermon Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, where it is thought to refer to a human "witch." An early 11th-century manuscript of Aldhelm's De laudis virginitatis (Oxford, Bodleian Library, Digby 146) glosses the Latin ueneris with wælcyrġe (while gydene translates to "goddess"). The term wælcyrġe appears in two manuscripts (Cotton Cleopatra A. iii and the older Corpus Glossary) to translate the names of the classical Furies. In the Cotton Cleopatra A. iii manuscript, wælcyrġe is also used to gloss the Roman goddess Bellona. The description of a raven flying over the Egyptian army refers to it as wonn wælceaseg ("the dark chooser of the slain"). Scholars debate whether these instances indicate a native Anglo-Saxon belief shared with the Norse or reflect later Norse influence (see the discussion below).
Archaeological Finds
Female Figures, Cups, and Horn-Bearers
Stylized silver amulets from the Viking Age, depicting women in long gowns with hair tied into ponytails and sometimes holding drinking horns, have been found throughout Scandinavia. These figures are commonly interpreted as valkyries or dísir. According to Mindy MacLeod and Bernard Mees, these amulets were found in Viking Age graves and likely placed there because they were thought to have protective powers.
The image stone from Tjängvide on the Swedish Baltic island of Gotland depicts a rider on an eight-legged horse, possibly Odin's steed Sleipnir, greeted by a woman who may represent a valkyrie in Valhalla. The rune stone U 1163 from the 11th century depicts a female figure holding a horn, interpreted as the valkyrie Sigrdrífa offering a drinking horn to the hero Sigurd (also depicted on the stone).
In 2013, three amateur archaeologists discovered a small figurine in Hårby, Denmark, dated to around 800 CE. The figurine depicts a woman with long, ponytail-bound hair wearing a long, sleeveless dress that appears vest-like at the top. Over the dress, she wears an embroidered apron. Her arms are free, allowing her to wield the sword and shield she holds. Archaeologist Mogens Bo Henriksen stated, "There can hardly be any doubt that the figure represents one of Odin's valkyries, as we know them from the sagas and from Swedish image stones dating to around 700 CE."
Rune Inscriptions
The Rök Runestone
Two runestones reference specific valkyries: the Rök Runestone from the early 9th century in Östergötland, Sweden, and the Karlevi Runestone from the 10th century on the island of Öland, Sweden, which mentions the valkyrie Þrúðr. On the Rök Runestone, an inscription includes a kenning depicting a valkyrie on a wolf as her steed:
"Let us tell the twelfth tale, where the valkyrie’s steed [literally 'the steed of Gunnr']
sees food on the battlefield, where twenty kings lie."
The Bryggen Inscriptions
Among the Bryggen inscriptions found in Bergen, Norway, is the "Valkyrie Stick" from the late 14th century. The stick bears a runic inscription intended as a charm for protection. The inscription reads:
"I carve healing runes and also helping runes,
once against elves, twice against trolls,
thrice against thurses, and then I mention a valkyrie:
Against the harmful Skag-Valkyrie,
so that she never, even though she wished otherwise—
evil woman!—may harm your life."
It continues:
"I send you, I see you, wolfish perversion and unbearable desire,
may distress descend upon you and Jöln’s wrath.
Never shall you sit, never shall you sleep … (until you) love me as yourself."
According to Mindy MacLeod and Bernard Mees, the inscription seems to begin as a benevolent charm before abruptly transitioning into the infliction of suffering, likely directed at the recipient of the spell rather than the malevolent valkyrie. They argue the final line appears to be a "malicious type of charm aimed at gaining a woman’s love."
MacLeod and Mees note that the opening lines of the charm align with themes from the poem Sigrdrífumál in the Poetic Edda, where the valkyrie Sigrdrífa provides advice in runic form. They also mention that the meaning of the term skag is unclear but might have a parallel in Helgakviða Hundingsbana I, where Sinfjötli accuses Guðmundr of having once been a "Skass-valkyrie." MacLeod and Mees believe the word implies something like "supernatural sending" and note a connection to Ragnhild Tregagás’ spell, where a valkyrie is similarly "sent forth."
Valkyrie Names
The Old Norse poems Völuspá, Grímnismál, Darraðarljóð, and the Nafnaþulur section of the Skáldskaparmál in the Prose Edda contain lists of valkyrie names. Additionally, some valkyrie names appear outside these lists, such as Sigrún, who is attested in the poems Helgakviða Hundingsbana I and Helgakviða Hundingsbana II. Many valkyrie names emphasize associations with battle and, in many cases, with the spear—a weapon strongly associated with the god Odin. Scholars have suggested that valkyrie names may not reflect individual personalities but instead describe the characteristics and essence of war-goddesses, possibly as poetic creations of skalds.
Interpretations of Valkyrie Names
- The valkyrie name Herja has been linked to a connection with the goddess Hariasa, attested on a stone from 187 CE.
- The name Herfjötur has been interpreted as referring to the valkyries' ability to bind their victims in fetters.
- The name Svipul might describe the valkyries’ influence over wyrd or ørlog—a Germanic concept of fate.
Theories
Old English wælcyrge
Richard North suggests that the description of a raven flying over the Egyptian army (glossed as wonn wælceaseg) might have been directly influenced by the Old Norse concept of Valhalla. He also proposes that the use of wælcyrge in De laudibus virginitatis could represent a borrowing or calque of the Old Norse valkyrja. However, North notes that the examples in Cotton Cleopatra A. iii and the Corpus Glossary "seem to reflect an Anglo-Saxon concept of wælcyrge that was independent of contemporary Scandinavian influence."
Two Old English charms feature figures that are believed to represent an Anglo-Saxon conception of valkyries or valkyrie-like female beings: Wið færstice (a charm for healing sudden pain or a sharp stabbing sensation) and For a Swarm of Bees (a charm to prevent bees from swarming). In Wið færstice, sudden pain is attributed to a small, "screeching" spear hurled with supernatural power (mægen) by "wild," loudly flying "mighty women" (mihtigan wif), who were riding over a burial mound:
"Loud they were, yea, loud,
as they rode over the (burial) mound;
fierce they were, as they rode across the land.
Shield yourself now; you can survive this battle.
Out, little spear, if here inside there is one.
He stood under/behind linden-wood (i.e., a shield), under a bright/light shield,
where those mighty women marshaled their strength,
and they sent screeching spears."
Theories have been proposed linking these figures to valkyries. Richard North states that "although it is not clear what the poet thinks these women are, their female gender, riding in flight, and spear-hurling suggest that they were imagined in England as a female entity analogous to the later Norse valkyries." Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that Wið færstice might originally have been a battle charm, later adapted to address "a mundane pain in the side." Toward the end of For a Swarm of Bees, the swarming bees are called "victory-women" (sigewif), which reads:
"Calm yourselves, victory-women,
never be wild and fly to the woods.
Be as mindful of my welfare,
as any man is of his food and his home."
The term "victory-women" has been interpreted as a possible reference to valkyries. However, this theory is not universally accepted, and the phrase has also been explained as a simple metaphor for the "victorious sword" (the stinger) of the bees.
Merseburg Incantations, Fetters, dísir, idisi, and Norns
One of the two Old High German Merseburg Incantations calls upon female beings—idisi—to bind and hinder an army. The incantation reads:
"Once sat the idisi, sat here and there,
some bound fetters, some hindered the army,
some loosened the bonds:
Escape the fetters, flee from the enemies."
The idisi mentioned in the incantation are commonly identified as valkyrie-like figures. Rudolf Simek states that "these idisi are clearly a kind of valkyrie, as they also have the power to hinder enemies in Norse mythology," and notes a connection to the valkyrie name Herfjötur (Old Norse "fetterer of armies"). Hilda R. Davidson compares the incantation to the Old English charm Wið færstice and suggests a similar role for both.
Simek explains that the West Germanic term idisi (Old Saxon idis, Old High German itis, Old English ides) refers to "a noble, respected woman (married or unmarried), possibly a term for any woman, and therefore precisely reflects the Latin matrona." He suggests that a connection to the Old Norse dísir is plausible but not universally accepted. The place name Idisiaviso ("plain of the idisi"), where Arminius' troops fought those of Germanicus at the Battle of the Weser River in 16 CE, further suggests a link between the idisi, their role in the Merseburg Incantation, and the valkyries.
Regarding dísir, Simek observes that the Old Norse dís often appears as a general term for "woman," similar to the Old High German itis, Old Saxon idis, and Old English ides. It may also have been used to describe a type of goddess. Simek concludes that "several of the Eddic sources suggest that the dísir were valkyrie-like guardians of the dead. In fact, in Guðrúnarkviða I stanza 19, the valkyries are even called Herjans dísir ('Odin's dísir'). In Atlamál stanza 28, the dísir are explicitly referred to as dead women, and a secondary belief that the dísir were the souls of dead women (see fylgjur) also underlies the landdísir of Icelandic folklore." Simek suggests that the beliefs about dísir, valkyries, Norns, and matronae might all be viewed as variations of a broader belief in a range of female (semi-)deities.
Jacob Grimm notes that while the Norns and valkyries are similar in nature, there is a fundamental difference between the two. Grimm explains that a dís may be either a Norn or a valkyrie, "but their functions and usually their persons are separate. The Norns pronounce fate; they sit in their seats or wander among mortals to affix their threads. Nowhere is it said that they ride. The valkyries ride into battle, decide the disputes, and escort the fallen to heaven; their ride resembles that of heroes and gods."
Origins and Development
Various theories have been proposed about the origins and development of valkyries, from their role in Germanic paganism to their place in later Norse mythology. Rudolf Simek posits that valkyries were likely originally regarded as "demons of the dead, to whom slain warriors on the battlefield belonged." Over time, this interpretation evolved as the concept of Valhalla shifted from being a battlefield to a warrior's paradise. Simek explains that this original idea "was replaced by the shield-maidens—Irish warrior women who, like the einherjar, continued to live in Valhalla." Simek emphasizes the close connection between valkyries and Odin, which he attributes to their earlier role as "death demons." He notes that valkyries shed their demonic characteristics during this transition and became popular figures in heroic poetry, acquiring more human traits that allowed them to fall in love with mortals. Simek also states that most valkyrie names point to a warrior function, appear relatively recent, and "likely stem more from poetic creativity than actual folk belief."
MacLeod and Mees theorize that "the role of corpse-selecting valkyries in later Norse mythology increasingly became conflated with that of the Norns, the supernatural women responsible for determining human fate."
Hilda Ellis Davidson writes about valkyries, stating, "Clearly, generations of poets and storytellers created a complex literary image, incorporating several ideas. We recognize elements of Norns, spirits who decide the fates of men; seeresses who could protect men in battle with their spells; powerful female guardian spirits associated with certain families, bringing luck to the young under their protection; even women who armed themselves and fought like men, for which there is some historical evidence in regions around the Black Sea." Davidson adds that this imagery might also preserve a memory of a "priestess of the war god—women who officiated at sacrificial rites when prisoners were killed after a battle."
Davidson highlights that the word "valkyrie" literally means "chooser of the slain." She compares Wulfstan's mention of a "chooser of the slain" in his sermon Sermo Lupi ad Anglos, where it appears in a "black list of sinners, witches, and wrongdoers," to "all the other classes [Wulfstan] mentions," concluding that they "are human figures, making it unlikely that he also introduced mythological figures." Davidson points out that the 10th-century Arab traveler Ibn Fadlan, in his detailed account of a Rus ship burial on the Volga, describes an "old woman, massive and grim to look upon" (whom Fadlan calls the "Angel of Death"). This woman orchestrates the killing of a slave girl and is accompanied by two other women, whom Fadlan calls her daughters. Davidson suggests, "It would not be surprising if strange legends grew around these women, who had to be kept apart from their kind because of their grim tasks. Since captives to be killed were often chosen by lot, the idea that the god selected his victims through the instrument of priestesses must have been familiar, apart from the obvious assumption that some were chosen to fall in battle." Davidson also notes that the Germanic peoples appear to have believed, since "early times," in "wild female spirits who carried out the war god’s commands, stirred up strife, participated in battle, seized the slain, and perhaps devoured them."
Freyja and Fólkvangr
The goddess Freyja and her afterlife field Fólkvangr, where she receives half of the slain, have been linked to valkyries. Britt-Mari Näsström references Gylfaginning, which describes Freyja as "always taking half of the slain when she rides into battle," interpreting Fólkvangr as "the field of warriors." Näsström observes that Freyja, like Odin, receives slain heroes who die on the battlefield. Her hall, Sessrúmnir, which Näsström translates as "filled with many seats," likely serves the same function as Valhalla. Näsström questions why Norse conceptions of the afterlife included two warrior paradises, speculating that this may result from "different forms of warrior initiation, with some belonging to Óðinn and others to Freyja." She concludes that these examples suggest Freyja was a goddess of war and that she even appears as a valkyrie, literally "one who chooses the slain."
Siegfried Andres Dobat adds that "the goddess Freyja, in her mythological role as the chooser of half of the fallen warriors for her afterlife realm Fólkvangr, appears as a mythological prototype for valkyries and dísir."
Modern Art
Valkyries have been the subject of various poems, stories, artworks, and musical compositions. In poetry, valkyries appear in Heinrich Heine's Die Walküren (published in Romanzero, 1847), Die Walküren (1864) by H. von Linge, and Sköldmon (published in Gömda Land, 1904). In music, they are prominently featured in Richard Wagner's Die Walküre (1870), which includes the well-known Ride of the Valkyries. Valkyries also appear in Hans Christian Andersen's fairy tale The Marsh King's Daughter.
Artworks depicting valkyries include Die Walküren (sketch, 1818) by J. G. Sandberg; Reitende Walküre (fresco, formerly in Munich Castle, destroyed) by M. Echter (1865–66); Valkyrien and Valkyriens død (paintings, both 1860); Walkürenritt (etching, 1871) by A. Welti; Walkürenritt (woodcut, 1871) by T. Pixis; Walkürenritt (1872) by A. Becker (reproduced under the same title by A. von Heyde in 1873); Die Walkyren (charcoal, 1880) and Walkyren wählen und wecken die gefallenen Helden (Einherier), um sie vom Schlachtfeld nach Walhall zu leiten (painting, 1882); Walkyrenschlacht (oil painting, 1884) by K. Ehrenberg; Walkürenritt (oil painting, 1888, and etching, 1890) by A. Welti; Walküre (statue) by H. Günther; Walkürenritt (oil painting) by H. Hendrich; Walkürenritt (painting) by F. Leeke; Einherier (painting, c. 1900) by K. Dielitz; Der Walkürenritt (painting, c. 1900) by J. C. Dollman; Walküre (statue, 1910) and Walhalla-Frost (Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen, 1886–87); Walkyrien (print, 1915) by A. Kolb; and Valkyrier (drawing, 1925) by E. Hansen.