Odin

Odin

Odin (/ˈoʊdɪn/; from Old Norse: Óðinn, IPA: [ˈoːðenː]) is a widely revered god in Germanic mythology. In Norse mythology, the primary source of most surviving information about him, Odin is associated with wisdom, healing, death, kingship, gallows, knowledge, war, battle, victory, sorcery, poetry, frenzy, and the runic alphabet. He is portrayed as the husband of the goddess Frigg. In broader Germanic mythology and paganism, the god was known as Wōden in Old English, Uuôden in Old Saxon, Wuodan in Old Dutch, Wêda in Old Frisian, and Wuotan in Old High German, all ultimately derived from the Proto-Germanic theonym Wōđanaz, meaning "lord of frenzy" or "leader of the possessed."

Odin appears as a prominent deity throughout the recorded history of Northern Europe, from the Roman occupation of Germania (beginning around the 2nd century BCE), through the Migration Period (4th–6th centuries CE), and into the Viking Age (8th–11th centuries CE). In the modern era, Odin continues to be recognised in the rural folklore of Germanic Europe. Evidence of his worship is found in place names across regions historically inhabited by the ancient Germanic peoples, and the weekday Wednesday bears his name in many Germanic languages, including English.

In Old English texts, Odin is portrayed as a euhemerised ancestral figure among kings. Among other Germanic peoples, such as the Lombards, he is frequently named as a founding figure, while some Old Norse sources depict him as a ruling god seated on a throne. His name frequently appears in Germanic records, though narratives about Odin are predominantly found in Old Norse works, mainly recorded in Iceland around the 13th century. These texts constitute the majority of modern understanding of Norse mythology.

Mythological Accounts

In Old Norse texts, Odin is described as the son of Bestla and Borr and as having two brothers, Vili and Vé. He fathered many sons, the most notable being the gods Thor (with Jörð) and Baldr (with Frigg). Known by hundreds of names, Odin is often depicted as one-eyed and long-bearded, wielding a spear named Gungnir or appearing in disguise, wearing a cloak and a wide-brimmed hat. He is frequently accompanied by his animal companions—the wolves Geri and Freki and the ravens Huginn and Muninn, who bring him information from across Midgard. Odin rides the flying, eight-legged horse Sleipnir, which carries him across the sky and into the underworld.

In these texts, Odin is often in pursuit of greater knowledge, most famously by acquiring the Mead of Poetry. He wagers with his wife Frigg on the outcomes of his ventures. Odin plays a role in the creation of the world by slaying the primordial being Ymir and giving life to the first humans, Ask and Embla. He also imparts knowledge of runic writing and poetry to humanity, embodying traits of a cultural hero. He is closely associated with the Yule season.

Odin is linked to the divine maidens of the battlefield, the Valkyries, and presides over Valhalla, where he receives half of the battle-slain, the einherjar, while the other half go to the goddess Freyja’s Fólkvangr. He consults the disembodied, herb-wrapped head of the wise Mímir, who foretells the doom of Ragnarök and urges Odin to lead the einherjar into battle before he is devoured by the monstrous wolf Fenrir. In later folklore, Odin sometimes appears as the leader of the Wild Hunt, a spectral procession of the dead across the winter sky. He is associated with incantations and other forms of magic, particularly in Old English and Old Norse texts.

Cultural and Historical Context

The figure of Odin has been a central topic in Germanic studies, with scholars proposing numerous theories about his development. Some focus on Odin’s relationships with other figures, such as the apparent etymological link to Freyja’s husband Óðr, the similarities between Frigg and Freyja, and Odin’s complex bond with Loki. Other approaches explore Odin’s place in history, investigating whether he stems from Proto-Indo-European mythology or developed later within Germanic society.

Odin is considered both a creator and a destroyer, a seeker of wisdom and a bearer of chaos, embodying a wide spectrum of traits that have made him a subject of fascination and debate for centuries.

Modern Influence

In the modern era, Odin has inspired numerous works of poetry, music, and cultural expression. Along with other Germanic gods, he is venerated in most branches of the modern Heathenry movement, with some sects placing particular emphasis on his worship. His enduring legacy continues to shape and influence contemporary interpretations of mythology and spirituality.

 

Name

Etymology and Origin

The Old Norse theonym Óðinn (runes: ᚢᚦᛁᚾ, found on the Ribe skull fragment) is a cognate (a linguistic "sibling" of common origin) of other medieval Germanic names, including Old English Wōden, Old Saxon Wōdan, Old Dutch Wuodan, and Old High German Wuotan (Old Bavarian Wûtan). All derive from the reconstructed Proto-Germanic male theonym Wōđanaz (or Wōdunaz), translated as "lord of frenzy" or "leader of the possessed." Wōđanaz originates from the Proto-Germanic adjective wōđaz ("possessed, inspired, mad, raging") combined with the suffix -naz ("lord of").

Internal and comparative evidence points to associations with divine possession, inspiration, and ecstatic prophecy. In his Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (1075–1080 CE), Adam of Bremen explicitly connects Wotan with the Latin term furor, which can be translated as "rage," "madness," "fury," or "frenzy" (Wotan id est furor: "Odin, that is fury"). Since 2011, the Proto-Norse Woðinz inscription on the Strängnäs Stone has been considered likely authentic, although the name could alternatively represent a related adjective meaning "possessed of a gift for (divine) inspiration" (Old Norse: øðinn).

Other Germanic cognates derived from wōđaz include Gothic woþs ("possessed"), Old Norse óðr ("mad, furious, raging"), Old English wōd ("mad, raging"), and Dutch woed ("furious, wild, insane"), as well as substantivized forms like Old Norse óðr ("mind, wit, sense; song, poetry"), Old English wōþ ("sound, noise; voice, song"), Old High German wuot ("excitement, intense agitation"), and Middle Dutch woet ("rage, frenzy"). These substantives reflect the transformation of the original adjective into nouns. Proto-Germanic terms like wōđīn ("madness, fury") and wōđjanan ("to rage") have also been reconstructed. Early epigraphic evidence for the adjective includes un-wōdz ("calm," i.e., "not mad"; 200 CE) and wōdu-rīde ("raging rider"; 400 CE).

Philologist Jan de Vries argued that the Old Norse deities Óðinn and Óðr were likely originally linked (similar to the pairing Ullr-Ullinn), with Óðr (wōđaz) as the older form and the actual origin of the name Óðinn (wōđa-naz). He further suggested that the furious god *Óðr-*Óðinn stood in a dynamic contrast to the god of majestic glory, Ullr-Ullinn, similar to the Vedic opposition between Varuna and Mitra.

The adjective wōđaz ultimately derives from the Proto-Indo-European (PIE) form uoh₂-tós, related to the Proto-Celtic term wātis, meaning "seer, soothsayer" (cf. Gaulish wāteis "seer," Old Irish fáith "prophet," and wātus, meaning "prophecy, poetic inspiration"; cf. Old Irish fáth "prophetic wisdom, sayings," Old Welsh guaut "prophetic verse, panegyric"). Some scholars argue that the Latin term vātēs ("prophet, seer") is likely a Celtic loanword from Gaulish, suggesting that uoh₂-tós ~ ueh₂-tus ("divinely inspired") was a shared religious concept between Germanic and Celtic traditions rather than an inherited PIE term. Alternatively, a PIE root (H)ueh₂-tis ("prophet, seer") could be proposed as the common ancestor of the attested Germanic, Celtic, and Latin forms.

Other Names

Over 170 names are attributed to Odin, reflecting various attributes of the god, myths in which he appears, or associated religious practices. This extensive variety makes Odin the god with the most known names among the Germanic peoples. Professor Steve Martin highlighted that the name Odinsberg (historically Ounesberry, Ounsberry, Othenburgh), later altered to Roseberry (Topping) in Cleveland, Yorkshire, may date from the Anglo-Saxon settlement period. Nearby locations like Newton under Roseberry and Great Ayton retain Anglo-Saxon suffixes. The dramatic rocky peak of Roseberry Topping likely served as a site of divine association and replaced earlier Bronze or Iron Age beliefs, as evidenced by a hoard of bronze votive axes and other items buried at the summit. This site may represent a rare example of Norse-Germanic theology supplanting earlier Celtic mythology at an imposing tribal location.

In his opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen, Richard Wagner referred to the god as Wotan, a spelling he devised by combining the Old High German Wuotan and Low German Wodan.

Origins of Wednesday

The modern English weekday name Wednesday derives from the Old English Wōdnesdæg, meaning "day of Wōden." Similar terms appear in other Germanic languages, such as Middle Low German and Middle Dutch Wōdensdach (modern Dutch woensdag), Old Frisian Wērnisdei (≈ Wērendei), and Old Norse Óðinsdagr (cf. Danish, Norwegian, Swedish onsdag). All these terms originate from the Late Proto-Germanic Wodanesdag ("day of Wōđanaz"), a calque of the Latin Mercurii dies ("day of Mercury"; cf. modern Italian mercoledì, French mercredi, Spanish miércoles).



Evidence

Roman Period to Migration Period

The earliest records of the Germanic peoples come from Roman sources, where Odin is often equated with the Roman god Mercury through a process known as interpretatio romana (where Romans identified non-Roman gods with their own based on perceived similarities). The first clear example of this occurs in the Germania by the Roman historian Tacitus, written in the late 1st century. Discussing the religion of the Suebi, a confederation of Germanic tribes, Tacitus writes:

"Among the gods, they worship Mercury the most. They regard it as a religious duty to sacrifice to him on certain days with human and other offerings. Hercules and Mars they appease with permissible animal offerings."
Tacitus also mentions that some Suebi worship "Isis," a reference debated by scholars as potentially representing Freyja.

Tacitus’ identification of Odin with Mercury appears to stem less from Mercury’s classical role as a messenger and more from his role as a psychopomp (guide of souls). Other characteristics—such as Odin’s possible association with a staff and hat, his depiction as a traveling deity, or his role as a god of trade—might have also drawn parallels between the two gods. However, their prominence within their respective religious spheres varied significantly. Notably, Tacitus’ description that "Mercury is the god they chiefly worship" is an exact quote from Julius Caesar’s Commentarii de Bello Gallico, where Caesar refers to the Gauls, not the Germanic tribes. Caesar also claims that the Germanic tribes worship only observable natural phenomena, such as the sun, fire, and the moon—a statement widely dismissed by modern scholars as incorrect.

The existence of an Odin cult among the Goths remains debated. Scholars like Richard North and Herwig Wolfram argue against such a cult, suggesting the Gothic adoption of Greek weekdays instead of Odin-based names indicates a lack of devotion to him. A contentious reading of the Gothic Pietroassa Ring inscription (gutaniowi hailag) translates as "holy to Wodan-Jove," though this interpretation is highly disputed.

Old English Sources

Although Anglo-Saxon England had converted to Christianity by the 7th century, Odin appears frequently as a founding figure for English royal lineages. He is also referenced in Old English poetry, including the Nine Herbs Charm and possibly the Old English Rune Poem. Another potential reference occurs in the prose narrative Solomon and Saturn.

In the Nine Herbs Charm, Odin is credited with defeating a wyrm (serpent or dragon) using nine "glory-twigs." This poem, from an 11th-century manuscript, contains the following lines:

  • wyrm com snican, toslat he nan,
    ða genam woden VIIII wuldortanas,
    sloh ða þa næddran þæt heo on VIIII tofleah,
    Þær gaændade æppel und attor
    þæt heo næfre ne wolde on hus bugan.

A wyrm came creeping, it slew no one.
Then Woden took nine glory-twigs
And struck the serpent, so it flew apart into nine pieces.
There ended the apple and venom,
So it would never re-enter the house.
(Translation by Bill Griffiths)

This account may connect to both Christian crucifixion imagery and Odin’s self-sacrifice for wisdom. In the gnomistic poem Maxims I, Odin is explicitly named:

Woden worhte weos ("Woden made idols"),
highlighting a direct opposition to Christian theology.

The Old English Rune Poem mentions the rune ós ("mouth" in Latin), which doubles as the Old English os—a pagan term for "god." Many scholars argue this was originally a reference to Odin, later Christianized. Kathleen Herbert notes that os likely referenced the Æsir gods and Odin’s association with wisdom and poetic inspiration, subtly retained under Christian censorship.

In Solomon and Saturn, "Mercurius the giant" (Mercurius se gygand) is credited with inventing letters—a role that aligns with Odin’s mythological introduction of runes. This text reflects the continued identification of Odin with Mercury, dating back to Tacitus.

Continental Germanic Sources

The Origo Gentis Langobardorum (7th century) and Historia Langobardorum by Paul the Deacon (8th century) provide a Lombardian foundation myth. In it, Odin (referred to as Godan) and his wife Frea determine the outcome of a conflict between the Winnili and the Vandals. Frea manipulates Odin into granting victory to the Winnili, whom Odin renames "Longobards" after their long beards.

In the mid-7th century, Jonas of Bobbio recorded the Irish missionary Columbanus disrupting a beer sacrifice for Odin (vodano), "whom others call Mercury," in Swabia. By the 9th century, in the Old Saxon Baptismal Vow, converts renounced "Woden," along with Saxnōt and Thunaer (Thor), as demons.

The 10th-century Second Merseburg Charm, discovered in Merseburg, Germany, invokes Woden alongside other deities to heal a horse:

Phol ende uuodan uuoran zi holza.
du uuart demo balderes uolon sin uuoz birenkit.
thu biguol en sinthgunt, sunna era suister,
thu biguol en friia, uolla era suister
thu biguol en uuodan, so he uuola conda:
sose benrenki, sose bluotrenki, sose lidirenki:
ben zi bena, bluot si bluoda,
lid zi geliden, sose gelimida sin!

Phol and Woden rode into the woods.
Baldur’s foal dislocated its foot.
Sinthgunt enchanted it, and Sunna her sister,
Friia enchanted it, and Volla her sister,
Woden enchanted it, as he could best:
Bone to bone, blood to blood,
limb to limb, as if they were mended!
(Translation by Bill Griffiths)

This charm demonstrates a persistent belief in Odin as a healer within the pre-Christian Germanic pantheon.

 

Viking Age to Post-Viking Era

11th Century: Adam of Bremen

In the 11th century, chronicler Adam of Bremen described Odin in the Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum. Adam reported that in the temple at Uppsala, Sweden (Gamla Uppsala), a statue of Thor sat enthroned, flanked by Odin (Wodan) and "Fricco" (likely Freyr). Adam described Odin as "Fury" (Wodan, id est furor) and stated that he "rules war and gives people strength against their enemies." Odin was depicted in armor, akin to how the Romans portrayed Mars. According to Adam, priests (gothi) were assigned to each deity, offering sacrifices (blót). During times of war, sacrifices were specifically made to images of Odin.

12th Century: Bryggen Inscription

Centuries after Norway's official Christianization, Odin was still invoked, as demonstrated by a runic inscription on a stick found among the Bryggen inscriptions in Bergen, Norway. This inscription appeals to both Thor and Odin, asking Thor to "receive" the reader and Odin to "possess" them, suggesting continued belief in the gods' protective powers.

Poetic Edda

The Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier oral traditions, contains numerous references to Odin.

Völuspá

In the poem Völuspá, Odin engages in a dialogue with a völva (seeress), who shares wisdom from the past and foretells the events of Ragnarök, including the destruction and rebirth of the world. The völva recounts the creation of the first humans, Ask and Embla, by three gods—Odin, Hœnir, and Lóðurr. The gods granted the lifeless figures three essential gifts:

Old Norse:

Ǫnd þau né átto, óð þau né hǫfðo,
lá né læti né lito góða.
Ǫnd gaf Óðinn, óð gaf Hœnir,
lá gaf Lóðurr ok lito góða.

Benjamin Thorpe's Translation:

Spirit they possessed not, sense they had not,
Blood nor motive powers, nor goodly colour.
Spirit gave Odin, sense gave Hœnir,
Blood gave Lodur, and goodly colour.

Henry Adams Bellows' Translation:

Soul they had not, sense they had not,
Heat nor motion, nor goodly hue;
Soul gave Othin, sense gave Hönir,
Heat gave Lothur, and goodly hue.

Scholars debate the precise meanings of these gifts and their translations.

The völva recounts Odin’s sacrifice of his eye to Mímir’s well (Mímisbrunnr) for wisdom. She reveals Odin’s fate at Ragnarök, where he will be devoured by the monstrous wolf Fenrir during the great battle. Odin’s son Víðarr will avenge him by slaying the wolf. After the world burns and is renewed, the surviving gods will meet and remember Odin’s deeds and the "ancient runes."

Hávamál

The Hávamál (Sayings of the High One) is attributed to Odin and contains a mix of practical advice, mythology, and mysticism. Among its mythological narratives, Odin recounts his self-sacrifice to gain knowledge of the runes:

Benjamin Thorpe's Translation:

I know that I hung on a wind-rocked tree,
nine whole nights,
with a spear wounded, and to Odin offered,
myself to myself;
on that tree, of which no one knows
from what root it springs.
They gave me no bread, nor a horn to drink,
I looked downwards;
I took up the runes, screaming I took them,
then I fell down from there.

Carolyne Larrington's Translation:

I know that I hung on a windy tree
nine long nights,
wounded with a spear, dedicated to Odin,
myself to myself,
on that tree of which no man knows
from where its roots run.
No bread they gave me nor a drink from a horn,
downwards I peered;
I took up the runes, screaming I took them,
then I fell back from there.

The tree, likely the cosmic tree Yggdrasil (Ygg's steed), is central to Odin’s association with hanging and the gallows. Scholars, such as John Lindow, note the connection between hanging and riding—those hanged on gallows were said to "ride" them.

Sigrdrífumál

In the introductory prose to Sigrdrífumál, Sigurd discovers a shield-maiden, later identified as the valkyrie Sigrdrífa, lying asleep in armor after Odin cast a sleep spell on her. Sigrdrífa explains that Odin pierced her with a sleep thorn as punishment for disobeying him in battle. She had vowed never to marry a man who knew fear. Upon awakening, she shares wisdom with Sigurd, including advice on runic inscriptions, mystical knowledge, and prophecies.

Legacy in Later Folklore

Even after the Viking Age, Odin’s influence persisted in folklore. He appeared as the leader of the Wild Hunt, a spectral procession of the dead through the winter skies. Odin remained associated with knowledge, magic, and poetry in post-Christian Germanic traditions.

By the time the Poetic Edda was compiled, Odin’s mythos had become deeply woven into Norse cultural identity, embodying themes of wisdom, sacrifice, and fate that resonated even beyond the conversion to Christianity.

 

Prose Edda

Odin is prominently featured in all sections of the Prose Edda, a 13th-century work that draws upon earlier traditional material. In Gylfaginning, the first book of the Prose Edda, Odin is introduced in detail in chapter 9. He is described as ruling from his throne in Asgard, overseeing all realms and creations, and referred to as "Allfather" because all gods, humans (descended from Ask and Embla), and other beings originate from him:

"There, the gods and their descendants lived, leading to many events both on Earth and in the heavens. In the city stands a seat called Hlidskialf, and when Odin sat on this throne, he could see over all the worlds and every action of humankind, understanding all that he saw. His wife, Frigg, daughter of Fiorgvin, gave rise to the lineage known as the Æsir, who lived in Old Asgard and its associated regions. This entire lineage is of divine origin, and Odin is called Allfather because he is the father of all gods and men and of all that has come to life through him and his power."

It is also stated that the Earth is both his daughter and his wife, and together they produced the first Æsir, Asa-Thor.

Huginn, Muninn, Geri, and Freki

In Gylfaginning (chapter 38), Odin is said to have two ravens, Huginn ("Thought") and Muninn ("Memory"), who perch on his shoulders and bring him news from across the world. Odin sends them out at dawn, and they return at dinnertime, informing him of everything they have seen and heard. Because of this, Odin is known as the "Raven God." This explanation is paired with a verse from Grímnismál:

"Huginn and Muninn fly every day
Over the wide earth.
I fear for Huginn, that he may not return,
But even more for Muninn."

The chapter also mentions Odin's wolves, Geri and Freki, to whom Odin gives all the food on his table, as he himself consumes only wine, which serves as both food and drink for him.

Heimskringla and Sagas

Odin is frequently mentioned in Heimskringla, a collection of sagas by Snorri Sturluson that chronicles the history of Norwegian kings.

Ynglinga Saga

In the Ynglinga Saga, the first section of Heimskringla, Odin is introduced as a chieftain in the land of the Æsir (Ásaland or Ásaheimr), whose capital is Ásgarðr. Ásgarðr is described as a major site for sacrifices, with twelve temple priests of the highest rank overseeing these rituals and ruling over the people. These priests, called Diar or chiefs, were revered and served by the population. Odin himself was an accomplished warrior and conqueror, who never lost a battle. This success led people to believe he had divine favor and invincibility. Before sending his men into war, Odin would lay his hands on their heads and grant them a bjannak (blessing), ensuring their victory.

Odin’s frequent absences from Ásgarðr are noted, during which his brothers, Vé and Vili, ruled in his stead. In one instance, while Odin was away for an extended period, the Æsir assumed he would not return, leading his brothers to divide his inheritance and share his wife, Frigg. However, Odin eventually returned and reclaimed both his throne and his wife.

Æsir-Vanir War

In chapter 4 of the Ynglinga Saga, the Æsir engage in a war with the Vanir. The conflict ends in a stalemate, with both sides agreeing to exchange hostages as part of a peace treaty. However, one hostage exchange goes awry: the Vanir decapitate Mímir, an Æsir hostage, and send his head back to Odin. Odin preserves the head with herbs and uses incantations (galdr) to imbue it with the ability to speak, gaining wisdom and knowledge from it.

Völsunga Saga

In the Völsunga Saga, Odin plays a role in the birth of the saga's namesake. King Rerir and his wife, unable to conceive, pray fervently to the gods. In response, Odin and Frigg send a valkyrie with a magical apple. When Rerir eats the apple, his wife becomes pregnant, eventually giving birth to Völsung, the ancestor of a legendary dynasty.

Hervarar Saga ok Heiðreks

In the Hervarar Saga ok Heiðreks, the poem Heiðreks gátur features a riddle about Odin and his horse Sleipnir:

Riddle by Gestumblindi:
Who are the twins
That run on ten feet?
They have three eyes,
But only one tail.
Solve this riddle, Heiðrekr!

Heiðrekr's Answer:
"Good is your riddle, Gestumblindi,
And solved it is:
It is Odin riding Sleipnir."

Modern Folklore

In Scandinavia, Odin was still acknowledged in local folklore and customs as late as the 19th century. In a mid-19th-century work, Benjamin Thorpe writes that on Gotland, "many traditions and stories about Odin the Old still live on the tongues of the people." Thorpe notes that in Blekinge, Sweden, "it used to be customary to leave a sheaf of grain in the field for Odin’s horses." He also recounts other examples, such as in Kråktorpsgård, Småland, where a burial mound said to contain Odin's body was reportedly opened in the 18th century. After the Christianisation of the area, the mound became known as Helvetesbackke ("Hell Hill"). Local legend states that when the mound was opened, "a miraculous fire burst forth like lightning," and a coffin full of flint stones and a lamp were uncovered.

Thorpe further recounts a legend from Troienborg, where a priest sowed rye, and as the rye grew, Odin was said to ride down from the hills every evening. Odin appeared so immense that with his spear in hand, he towered over the buildings of the farm. He would stop at the entrance, preventing anyone from entering or leaving the farm throughout the night, a phenomenon that continued nightly until the rye was harvested.

Thorpe also mentions a tale of a golden ship said to have sunk in Runemad, near Nyckelberg. According to tradition, Odin used this ship to transport the slain warriors from the Battle of Bråvalla to Valhalla. Another legend tells of Kettil Runske, who allegedly stole Odin's rune staves (runekaflar) and then bound Odin's dogs, a bull, and a mermaid who had come to aid Odin. Thorpe notes that many other similar traditions existed across Sweden at the time of his writing.

In 1851, Thorpe reports that in Sweden, "if a sound like carriages and horses is heard at night, people say: 'Odin is passing by.'"

In Loka Táttur or Lokka Táttur, a Faroese ballad from the late medieval period, Odin and the gods Loki and Hœnir help a farmer and a boy escape the wrath of a Jötunn who has won a wager.

Archaeological Records

Numerous artifacts bear references to or depictions of Odin, providing evidence of his significance in pre-Christian Germanic societies.

Migration Period (5th–6th Century CE)

  • Gold Bracteates: Found across Denmark, Sweden, Norway, England, and southern areas of Denmark, these Migration Period gold discs often depict a human figure on horseback, holding a spear, and flanked by one or two birds. These birds have been interpreted as Odin’s ravens, Huginn and Muninn. Some bracteates show one bird near the human figure’s ear or the horse’s ear, possibly indicating communication. The Austrian scholar Rudolf Simek suggests these depictions show Odin using his ravens for veterinary purposes, reflecting his association with healing.

Vendel Period (6th–7th Century CE)

  • Helmet Plates: Found in graves from the Vendel Period in Sweden, these plates depict a helmeted figure holding a spear and shield, riding a horse flanked by two birds. The figure is often interpreted as Odin with his ravens.

Viking Age (8th–11th Century CE)

  • Gotland Picture Stones:

    • The Tjängvide and Ardre VIII stones from Gotland depict eight-legged horses believed to represent Sleipnir, Odin’s steed. Both stones feature riders on eight-legged horses, likely Odin. The Tjängvide stone also shows a horizontal figure holding a spear, potentially a Valkyrie, and a woman greeting the rider with a drinking horn, interpreted as a welcoming to the afterlife.
    • The Eggja Stone (mid-7th century) contains the term haras ("army god"), associated with Odin, and may symbolically represent Sleipnir.

  • Bird-Shaped Brooches: A pair of bird-shaped brooches from Bejsebakke, Denmark, dated to the Germanic Iron Age, may depict Huginn and Muninn. The backs of these brooches feature mask motifs, and the birds' tails and feathers are shaped like animal heads, potentially symbolizing Odin’s presence.

  • Oseberg Tapestry Fragments: Found in the Oseberg ship burial in Norway, these fragments include a depiction of two black birds flying above a horse-drawn wagon. Scholar Anne Stine Ingstad interprets these birds as Huginn and Muninn flying over a wagon bearing an image of Odin, drawing parallels to Tacitus' 1st-century CE account of Nerthus-related rituals.

  • Lead Moulds from Ribe: Found in Ribe, Denmark, a Viking Age lead mould and 11 identical cast pieces depict a bearded man wearing a helmet adorned with two bird-like protrusions. These have been interpreted as Huginn and Muninn, with the figure representing Odin.

  • Thorwald’s Cross (Isle of Man): A partially preserved 10th-century runestone shows a bearded man holding a spear pointed at a wolf, with a bird perched on his shoulder. The man’s foot is in the wolf's mouth. This has been interpreted as Odin at Ragnarök, devoured by Fenrir, with Huginn or Muninn on his shoulder.

  • Ledberg Stone (Sweden): This 11th-century stone depicts a similar scene to Thorwald’s Cross, with a figure standing on a wolf’s mouth, possibly Odin at Ragnarök. Beneath the wolf is a legless, helmeted man with arms outstretched. The Younger Futhark inscription on the stone includes a memorial dedication and a cryptic runic sequence described as a "mysterious magical formula."

  • Lejre Silver Figurine: Discovered in 2009 and known as the "Odin from Lejre," this silver figure shows a seated man on a throne adorned with animal heads, flanked by two birds identified as Huginn and Muninn. The figure is interpreted as Odin on his throne, Hliðskjálf.

Valknut Symbol

  • Found on various artifacts, the Valknut (a triple-knot symbol) is associated with Odin due to its context on items tied to him. Hilda Ellis Davidson theorizes that the Valknut symbolizes Odin’s powers of binding and releasing mental or physical states, as reflected in his role in mythology. For example:
    • The symbol appears beside depictions of Odin on memorial stones and cremation urns from East Anglia.
    • Davidson links Odin’s connection to fire burials and his role as a bringer of ecstasy to this symbol and the god’s etymology.

These archaeological findings provide insight into Odin’s extensive worship, his mythological associations, and his enduring role in Germanic societies.

Origin, Theories, and Reception

Origin Theories

Since Henry Petersen's 1876 dissertation, suggesting Thor as a native god of Scandinavian farmers and Odin as a later deity of chieftains and poets, many scholars have viewed Odin as an imported figure. This idea was expanded by Bernhard Salin, who analyzed motifs on petroglyphs and bracteates and referred to the Prose Edda prologue, which describes the Æsir as immigrants to Scandinavia. Salin proposed that both Odin and the runes were introduced during the Iron Age from Southeastern Europe. Other scholars, such as Axel Olrik, dated Odin's introduction to the Migration Period due to Gallic influence.

Marija Gimbutas and Karl Helm argued that the Æsir, including both Thor and Odin, were introduced late into Northern Europe, suggesting that the region's indigenous religion was primarily Vanir-based.

In 16th-century Sweden, during the Vasa dynasty, Odin (Oden) was officially recognized by the Swedish government and historians as the first king of Sweden. This narrative was invented by Johannes Magnus and became part of the official regnal lists under King Carl IX, though he was actually only the third Swedish king of that name.

Comparative Mythology

According to Georges Dumézil’s trifunctional hypothesis, Odin represents the first function (sovereignty) in the Indo-European pantheon, akin to the Hindu deity Varuṇa (associated with wrath and magic), contrasting with Týr, who corresponds to Mitrá (law and justice). The Vanir represent the third function (fertility).

Odin's characteristics have led to interpretations of him as a wind god or a god of death. His association with ecstatic practices has prompted comparisons to Rudra in Hindu mythology and Hermes in Greek mythology.

Modern Influence

Visual Arts

Odin has inspired numerous works of visual art, including:

  • Pehr Hörberg's Odin byggande Sigtuna (1812) and King Gylfe receives Odin upon his arrival in Sweden (1816).
  • Bengt Erland Fogelberg's Odin (1830) and the colossal bust Odin.
  • Hermann Ernst Freund's Odin statues (1812/1822 and 1824/1825).
  • Edward Burne-Jones’s painting Odin (~1880) and Hans Thoma's graphic drawing Odin as War God (1896).
  • Dorothy Hardy’s Odin and Fenris (~1900).
  • Dagfin Werenskiold's wood relief Odin og Mime (1938) and Odin på Sleipnir (1945–1950) at Oslo City Hall.
  • Bror Marklund's bronze relief of Odin at the Swedish National Museum (1950).

Literature

Odin features prominently in modern literature, including:

  • Friedrich von Hagedorn’s Der Wein (1745).
  • Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock's Hymne de Wodan (1769).
  • Richard Wagner’s poem Zum 25. August 1870 and his operatic cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen (1848–1874).
  • Poul Anderson’s science fiction story The Sorrow of Odin the Goth, suggesting Odin was a 20th-century time traveler whose actions created enduring myths.

Film and Comics

Odin has been adapted into popular media, particularly by Marvel Comics, debuting in Journey into Mystery in 1962. Sir Anthony Hopkins portrayed Odin in the Marvel Cinematic Universe films:

  • Thor (2011),
  • Thor: The Dark World (2013),
  • Thor: Ragnarok (2017).

Video Games

Odin appears in several video games:

  • Age of Mythology (2002): Odin is a primary Norse deity worshipped by players.
  • God of War series: Mentioned in the 2018 installment and prominently featured in God of War Ragnarök (2022), voiced by Richard Schiff.
  • Assassin’s Creed Valhalla (2020): Odin plays a central role as an Isu (a godlike species), with the protagonist Eivor revealed as his human reincarnation.
  • Smite: Odin is a playable god in this multiplayer online battle arena game.

Odin's presence in these diverse mediums demonstrates his lasting cultural resonance, symbolizing wisdom, war, and the mysticism of ancient Germanic mythology.

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