Freya
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In Norse paganism, Freyja (/ˈfreɪə/; Old Norse: [ˈfrœyjɑ], "The Lady") is a goddess associated with love, beauty, fertility, sex, war, gold, and seiðr (magic used to see and influence the future). Freyja owns the necklace Brísingamen, rides in a chariot drawn by two cats, is accompanied by the boar Hildisvíni, and possesses a cloak of falcon feathers. With her husband Óðr, she is the mother of two daughters, Hnoss and Gersemi. Alongside her twin brother Freyr, her father Njörðr, and her mother (Njörðr's sister, who is unnamed in the sources), she belongs to the Vanir. The name originates from Old Norse "Freyja," with modern variations including Freya, Freyia, and Freja.
Freyja presides over her heavenly field, Fólkvangr, where she receives half of those who die in battle. The other half goes to the hall of the god Odin, Valhalla. In Fólkvangr lies her hall, Sessrúmnir. Freyja aids other gods by lending them her feathered cloak, is invoked for matters of fertility and love, and is often desired by powerful Jötnar who wish to marry her. Freyja’s husband, the god Óðr, is frequently absent. She sheds tears of red gold in his absence and searches for him under false names. Freyja has numerous names, including Gefn, Hörn, Mardöll, Sýr, Vanadís, and Francoise.
Freyja is mentioned in the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources; the Prose Edda and Heimskringla, written by Snorri Sturluson in the 13th century; various sagas of Icelanders; the short story "Sörla þáttr"; skaldic poetry; and Scandinavian folklore that persisted into modern times.
Scholars have debated whether Freyja and the goddess Frigg ultimately stem from a single goddess common to the Germanic peoples. They have linked her with the Valkyries, the female choosers of the slain on the battlefield, and analyzed her relationships with other goddesses and figures in Germanic mythology, including the thrice-burned and thrice-reborn Gullveig/Heiðr, the goddesses Gefjon, Skaði, Þorgerðr Hölgabrúðr and Irpa, Menglöð, and the "Isis" of the Suebi. In Scandinavia, Freyja’s name appears frequently in plant names, particularly in southern Sweden. Various plants in Scandinavia once bore her name, which was replaced by the Virgin Mary’s name during Christianization. Rural Scandinavians regarded Freyja as a supernatural figure until the 19th century, and she has inspired various works of art.
Name and Etymology
The name Freyja clearly means "lady" or "mistress" in Old Norse and derives from the Proto-Germanic feminine noun frawjōn ("lady, mistress"), which is related to Old Saxon frūa ("lady, mistress") and Old High German frouwa ("lady"; cf. modern German Frau). Freyja is also etymologically related to the name of the god Freyr, which means "lord" in Old Norse. Thus, it is believed that the theonym Freyja originally served as a title, replacing a personal name no longer preserved.
Alternative Names
In Old Norse sources, Freyja is also referred to by several alternative names:
| Name (Old Norse) | Meaning | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| Gefn | "The Giving One" | Gylfaginning, Nafnaþulur | Likely connected to the root Gef- ("to give"), also seen in the name Gefjon. |
| Hörn | "Flaxen Blond" | Gylfaginning, Nafnaþulur | Appears in Swedish place names like Härnösand and Härnevi. |
| Mardöll | "Sea Light" or "Sea Riser" | Gylfaginning, Nafnaþulur | Potentially linked to Heimdallr through etymology. |
| Skjálf | "Shaking One" | Nafnaþulur | May relate to Freyja’s necklace Brísingamen and a Finnish legend involving the name Skjálf. |
| Sýr | "Sow" | Gylfaginning, Skáldskaparmál, Nafnaþulur | The pig was a significant symbol of the Vanir, particularly linked to Freyja and her brother Freyr. |
| Valfreyja | "Freyja of the Slain" | Njals Saga | Refers to her role in choosing half the slain in battle. |
| Vanadís | "Lady of the Vanir" | Skáldskaparmál | Reflects her origin as one of the Vanir. |
Attestations in the Poetic Edda
Freyja is mentioned or appears in the poems Völuspá, Grímnismál, Lokasenna, Þrymskviða, Oddrúnargrátr, and Hyndluljóð from the Poetic Edda.
In Völuspá, Freyja is referred to as "Óðr’s girl"; she is the wife of Óðr. The stanza recounts how Freyja was once promised to a nameless builder who later turned out to be a Jötunn and was killed by Thor (a story elaborated on in Gylfaginning, Chapter 42; see the section on the Prose Edda below). In the poem Grímnismál, Odin (disguised as Grímnir) tells the young Agnar that Freyja assigns half of the fallen in battle to her hall, Fólkvangr, while the other half belong to Odin in Valhalla.
In Lokasenna, where Loki accuses nearly every woman present of promiscuity or infidelity, a heated exchange occurs between Loki and Freyja. At the start of the poem, it is noted that Freyja attends a feast hosted by Ægir alongside other gods and goddesses. Following Loki’s insults towards the goddess Frigg, Freyja intervenes, accusing Loki of madness for recounting his terrible deeds and noting that Frigg knows the fate of all beings, even if she does not reveal it. Loki tells Freyja to be silent, claiming he knows everything about her, including that every god and elf in the hall has been her lover. Freyja denies this, accusing Loki of lying and rambling about wrongdoings. She adds that, since the gods and goddesses are angry with him, Loki can expect to be sent home defeated. Loki calls Freyja a malicious witch and conjures a scene where she was once caught astride her brother by the gods, who burst out laughing. Njörðr interjects, saying that it is harmless for a woman to take a lover other than her husband, pointing out that Loki himself has borne children, and calls him a pervert. The poem continues with more accusations and exchanges.
In Þrymskviða, Loki borrows Freyja’s feathered cloak, and Thor disguises himself as Freyja to fool the lustful Jötunn Þrymr. In the poem, Thor awakens to find his mighty hammer Mjöllnir missing. He informs Loki of the theft, and the two proceed to Freyja’s hall. Thor asks Freyja if she will lend him her feathered cloak so he can find his hammer. Freyja agrees:
Benjamin Thorpe’s translation: "I would give it to you, even if it were of gold,
And entrust it to you, even if it were of silver."
Henry Adams Bellows’ translation: "Yours it shall be, though it were of bright silver,
And I would give it, though it were of gold."
Loki flies off with the whirring cloak to the land of Jötunheimr, where he spots Þrymr sitting on a hill. Þrymr reveals that he has hidden Thor’s hammer deep in the earth and will only return it if Freyja is given to him as a bride. Loki returns, cloak whirring, to the gods’ hall and informs Thor of Þrymr’s demands.
The two return to Freyja. Thor asks her to don a bridal headdress and prepare to travel to Jötunheimr. Freyja is furious—the halls of the gods tremble as she snorts with rage, and her necklace Brísingamen falls from her. She replies indignantly:
Benjamin Thorpe’s translation: "You must know I am the most shameless of all women,
If I journey with you to Jötunheimr."
Henry Adams Bellows’ translation: "Most lustful indeed would I look to all,
If I fared with you to the giants’ home."
The gods and goddesses gather in a council to determine how to retrieve Mjöllnir. Heimdallr suggests that Thor disguise himself as a bride, complete with bridal attire, headdress, jingling keys, jewellery, and the famous Brísingamen. Thor resists but is silenced by Loki, who reminds him that the giants will soon settle in the land of the gods if the hammer is not recovered. Thor complies and dons the disguise, while Loki dresses as his handmaid. The two set off for Jötunheimr.
Meanwhile, Þrymr orders his servants to prepare for the arrival of Njörðr’s daughter. When "Freyja" arrives the next morning, Þrymr is surprised by her behaviour: her enormous appetite for food and mead far exceeds his expectations, and when he attempts to steal a kiss under "her" veil, he finds her eyes terrifying and recoils. Loki excuses the bride’s strange behaviour, claiming she has neither eaten nor slept for eight days. Ultimately, the disguises succeed in fooling the Jötnar, and Thor regains his hammer with force.
In Oddrúnargrátr, Oddrún assists Borgny in giving birth to twins. In gratitude, Borgny invokes Vættir, Frigg, Freyja, and other unnamed deities.
Freyja is a central figure in Hyndluljóð, where she aids her loyal servant Óttar in discovering information about his ancestry so he can claim his inheritance. Freyja transforms Óttar into her boar, Hildisvíni, and through flattery and threats of fiery death, she coerces the Jötunn Hyndla into revealing the lineage Óttar needs. Freyja speaks throughout the poem and, at one point, praises Óttar for building a hörgr (a stone altar) and frequently offering her blót (sacrifices):
Benjamin Thorpe’s translation: "An altar he raised for me,
Made of stones;
Now the stone
Is like glass.
With the blood of cattle
He newly sprinkled it.
Ottar always trusted in the goddesses."
Henry Adams Bellows’ translation: "A shrine of stones he built for me,
And now the rock is glass;
Oft with the blood of beasts was it red,
And Ottar ever trusted the goddesses."
Prose Edda
Freyja appears in the books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál within the Prose Edda. In Chapter 24 of Gylfaginning, the enthroned figure of High explains that the god Njörðr, after separating from the goddess Skaði, had two beautiful and powerful children (no partner is mentioned): a son, Freyr, and a daughter, Freyja. Freyr is described as "the most glorious" of the gods, and Freyja as "the most glorious" of the goddesses. Freyja lives in a heavenly dwelling called Fólkvangr, where, according to High, "when she rides to battle, she receives half of the slain, and the other half belong to Odin." To support this statement, High cites a stanza from Grímnismál, which is referenced earlier in the Poetic Edda section.
High adds that Freyja has a large and beautiful hall called Sessrúmnir, and when she travels, she rides in a chariot pulled by two cats. Freyja is said to be "the goddess most often called upon by people, and her name inspired the honourific title by which noble women are called fruvor [noble ladies]." High notes that Freyja has a particular love for love songs and that "it is good to pray to her in matters of love."
In Chapter 29, High lists the names and attributes of various goddesses, including Freyja. Regarding Freyja, High states that she ranks highest among them alongside Frigg and possesses the necklace Brísingamen. Freyja is married to Óðr, who frequently undertakes long journeys, and the couple has a beautiful daughter named Hnoss. While Óðr is absent, Freyja remains behind and, in her grief, weeps tears of red gold. High explains that Freyja has many names, which she acquired during her travels "among strange peoples" while searching for Óðr. These names include Gefn, Hörn, Mardöll, Sýr, and Vanadís.
Freyja plays a role in the events leading to the birth of Sleipnir, the eight-legged horse. In Chapter 42, High recounts how, shortly after the gods constructed the hall of Valhalla, an unnamed builder approached them and offered to build a fortress within three seasons so strong that no Jötunn could cross it from Midgard. In return, the builder demanded Freyja as his bride, along with the sun and the moon. After much deliberation, the gods agreed but imposed additional conditions. Just as the builder was about to complete his work, it was revealed that he was a Jötunn, and Thor killed him. Meanwhile, Loki, having transformed into a mare, was impregnated by the Jötunn's horse Svaðilfari, ultimately giving birth to Sleipnir. High cites a stanza from Völuspá, which mentions Freyja, to support this story. In Chapter 49, High recalls the funeral of Baldr, where Freyja attended, driving her chariot pulled by cats. This marks the final mention of Freyja in Gylfaginning.
At the beginning of Skáldskaparmál, Freyja is listed as one of eight goddesses attending a banquet hosted by Ægir. Chapter 56 describes the abduction of the goddess Iðunn by the Jötunn Þjazi in eagle form. Fearing death and torture for his involvement in the abduction, Loki asks if he may borrow Freyja’s "falcon form" to fly north to Jötunheimr and retrieve the missing goddess. Freyja consents, and with her "falcon form," Loki successfully rescues Iðunn after a dramatic pursuit by eagle-Þjazi.
In Chapter 6, Njörðr is referenced as Freyja’s father ("father of Freyr and Freyja"). Chapter 7 includes a kenning for Freyr that refers to the goddess ("brother of Freyja"). Chapter 8 mentions Heimdallr as "Loki’s enemy, who recovered Freyja’s necklace," alluding to a myth in which Heimdallr retrieves Brísingamen from Loki.
In Chapter 17, the Jötunn Hrungnir is found in Asgard, the realm of the gods, and becomes very drunk. Hrungnir boasts that he will relocate Valhalla to Jötunheimr, bury Asgard, and kill all the gods—except for the goddesses Freyja and Sif, whom he intends to take home with him. Freyja is the only one brave enough to offer him more drink. Hrungnir declares he will drink all of Freyja’s ale. After some time, the gods grow weary of Hrungnir’s antics and summon Thor. Thor immediately enters the hall with his hammer raised, furious, and demands to know who allowed a Jötunn into Asgard, who guaranteed Hrungnir’s safety, and why Freyja has been serving him "drinks as if at a feast of the Æsir."
In Chapter 18, verses from the 10th-century skaldic poem Þórsdrápa are cited, with one kenning referring to Freyja. Chapter 20 provides poetic kennings for Freyja, including "daughter of Njörðr," "sister of Freyr," "wife of Óðr," "mother of Hnoss," "possessor of the slain and Sessrúmnir and the cats," "possessor of Brísingamen," "Vanir goddess," Vanadís, and "goddess of the tears of gold." Chapter 32 describes poetic terms for gold, including "Freyja’s weeping" and "rain or shower [...] from Freyja’s eyes."
In Chapter 33, the gods are described as travelling to visit Ægir, with Freyja among them. Chapter 49 cites a work by the skald Einarr Skúlason, using the kenning "rain of Óðr’s bedfellow’s eyes" to mean gold, referring to Freyja.
Chapter 36 reiterates that gold can poetically be called Freyja’s weeping, as she sheds tears of red gold. To support this, works by the skalds Skúli Þórsteinsson and Einarr Skúlason are cited, both of whom use "Freyja’s tears" or "Freyja’s weeping" to mean gold. The chapter includes further quotations from Einarr Skúlason’s poetry referencing the goddess and her daughter Hnoss. Freyja’s final mention in the Prose Edda is in Chapter 75, where she is included in a list of goddesses.
Heimskringla
The Heimskringla book Ynglinga saga contains a brief account of the origins of the gods, including Freyja. In Chapter 4, Freyja is introduced as a member of the Vanir, the sister of Freyr, and the daughter of Njörðr and his unnamed sister. After the Æsir-Vanir war ends in a stalemate, Odin appoints Freyr and Njörðr as priests to oversee sacrifices. Freyja becomes the priestess of the sacrifices and is credited with introducing the practice of seiðr (a form of magic) to the Æsir, which had previously been practised only by the Vanir.
In Chapter 10, Freyja’s brother Freyr dies, leaving Freyja as the last surviving member of the Æsir and Vanir. Freyja continues to conduct the sacrifices and becomes renowned. The saga explains that due to Freyja’s fame, all women of rank came to be referred to by her name—frúvor ("ladies"). A woman who held authority over her property was called Freyja, and a woman who owned an estate was called húsfreyja ("lady of the house").
The chapter adds that Freyja was not only very wise but that she and her husband Óðr had two beautiful daughters, Gersemi and Hnoss, whose names became synonymous with precious treasures.
Other Mentions
Freyja is mentioned in Egils saga, Njáls saga, Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka, and Sörla þáttr.
Egils saga
In Egils saga, Egill Skallagrímsson refuses to eat. His daughter, Þorgerðr (here anglicised as Thorgerd), declares that she too will stop eating, choosing to die and meet the goddess Freyja:
Thorgerd answered loudly: "I have not eaten supper, nor will I, until I meet Freyja. I know no better path than my father’s. I do not wish to live if my father and brother are dead."
Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka
In the first chapter of the legendary Hálfs saga ok Hálfsrekka (14th century), King Alrek has two wives, Geirhild and Signy, but he cannot keep them both. He tells the women he will keep whichever one brews the best ale by the time he returns in the summer. During the brewing process, Signy prays to Freyja, while Geirhild prays to Hött ("hood"), a man she previously encountered (later revealed in the saga to be Odin in disguise). Hött answers her prayer by spitting into her yeast. Signy’s brew wins the contest.
Sörla þáttr
In Sörla þáttr, a short narrative from the late 14th century found in the Flateyjarbók manuscript, the gods are euhemerised. Freyja is described as Odin’s concubine and trades sexual favours with four dwarves in exchange for a golden necklace.
In this account, the Æsir are said to have lived in a city called Asgard, located in a region referred to as "Asialand or Asiahome." Odin was king of the realm and appointed Njörðr and Freyja as temple priests. Freyja is described as Njörðr’s daughter and Odin’s concubine. Odin loved Freyja deeply, and she was "the most beautiful woman of those days." Freyja lived in a splendid chamber, and if her door was closed, no one could enter without her permission.
In Chapter 1, Freyja passes by an open stone where dwarves reside. Four dwarves are crafting a nearly finished golden necklace. When the dwarves see Freyja, they are struck by her beauty. Freyja offers to buy the necklace with silver, gold, or other valuables, but the dwarves refuse, stating that they lack no wealth. Instead, they demand that she spend one night with each of them. Whether she liked it or not, Freyja agreed to the terms, spending one night with each of the four dwarves. The conditions fulfilled, the necklace became hers. Freyja returned to her chamber as though nothing had happened.
In Chapter 2, Loki learns of Freyja’s actions and informs Odin. Odin orders Loki to retrieve the necklace and bring it to him. Loki complains that this will be no easy task since no one can enter Freyja’s chamber against her will. Odin insists, commanding Loki not to return until he finds a way to retrieve the necklace. Loki sets off, grumbling, and arrives at Freyja’s chamber, which he finds locked. Loki transforms into a fly and searches for a way in. After much effort, he squeezes through a tiny hole at the top of the gable.
Once inside, Loki observes that Freyja is asleep. He lands on her bed and notices that she is wearing the necklace, its clasp turned downward. Loki transforms into a flea and bites Freyja’s cheek. She stirs, rolls over, and falls back asleep. Loki returns to his true form, unfastens the necklace, opens the chamber door, and leaves with the necklace, bringing it to Odin.
The next morning, Freyja wakes to find her chamber door open and her precious necklace missing. Suspecting who is responsible, Freyja dresses and confronts Odin. She accuses him of permitting such malice against her and demands the return of her necklace.
Odin replies that she would never regain the necklace if she knew how it had been taken. However, he offers one condition: she may retrieve it if she can cause two kings, each ruling over twenty other kings, to fight against one another. Odin adds that she must cast a spell ensuring that every time one of the kings’ warriors falls in battle, they rise to fight again. This cycle must continue indefinitely unless a Christian man of a specific stature enters the battle and defeats them. Only then will the warriors remain dead. Freyja agrees to the terms.
Post-Christianisation and Scandinavian Folklore
Although the Christianisation of Scandinavia sought to demonise the native gods, belief in and reverence for them, including Freyja, persisted into modern times, merging with Scandinavian folklore. Britt-Mari Näsström observes that Freyja became a particular target during the Christianisation process:
"Freyja's erotic qualities became an easy target for the new religion, where an asexual virgin was the ideal woman. Freyja was labelled a 'harlot' and 'whore' by holy men and missionaries, while many of her functions in the daily lives of men and women, such as protecting vegetation and aiding childbirth, were transferred to the Virgin Mary."
However, Freyja did not disappear entirely. In Iceland, she was still invoked as late as the 18th century with the help of Icelandic magical staves. In rural Sweden, Freyja retained elements of her role as a fertility goddess well into the 19th century.
The Old Norse poem Þrymskviða (or its source) was absorbed into Scandinavian folk song traditions, becoming euhemerised and otherwise altered over time. In Iceland, it became known as Þrylur, while in Denmark it transformed into Thor af Havsgaard and in Sweden into Torvisan or Hammarhämtningen. A section of the Swedish Torvisan, where Freyja is reimagined as "the Fair Frojenborg" (den väna Frojenborg), includes the following:
Swedish
Det var den väna Frojenborg
hon tog så illa vid sig
det sprack av vart finger blodet ut
och rann i jorden ner.
Translation by Britt-Mari Näsström
"It was the fair Frojenborg,
she was so upset [by Þórr's demand]
that blood spurted from her fingers
and ran down into the earth."
In the Swedish province of Småland, a tale survives that connects Freyja to lightning. The writer Johan Alfred Göth recounted an event from a Sunday in 1880 when men walked the fields, inspecting the nearly ripe rye. Måns in Karryd remarked, "Now Freyja is out, checking if the rye is ready." Göth also recalls another rural mention of Freyja:
"When I, as a boy, visited old Proud-Katrina, like all children then, I was afraid of lightning. When lightning flashed at night, Katrina would say, 'Don't be afraid, my child; it's just Freyja striking steel and flint outside to see if the rye is ripe. She is kind to people and only does it to help them. She is not like Thor, who kills people and cattle as he pleases.' Later, I heard other old folks speak of the same thing in the same way."
In Värend, Sweden, it was believed that Freyja could visit on Christmas Eve and shake apple trees to ensure a good harvest. People would leave a few apples in the trees as an offering to her. However, it was considered dangerous to leave a plough outside, as if Freyja sat on it, it would become unusable.
Epithets and Legacy
Several plants were named after Freyja, such as Freyja's Tears and Freyja's Hair (Polygala vulgaris). However, during Christianisation, the goddess's name was replaced with that of the Virgin Mary. In pre-Christian times, the constellation Orion was referred to as either Frigg’s Distaff or Freyja’s Distaff (Swedish: Frejerock).
Place names in Norway and Sweden reflect the goddess’s veneration, such as the Norwegian name Frøihov (originally Freyjuhof, meaning "Freyja's Temple") and Swedish place names like Frövi (from Freyjuvé, meaning "Freyja’s vé"). M. Olsen’s survey of Norwegian toponyms identified at least 20 to 30 names associated with Freyja. Three of these appear to derive from Freyjuhof ("Freyja's Temple"), while other names frequently combine Freyja with words for "meadow" (e.g., -þveit, -land) and similar land features. These names are most commonly found on the west coast of Norway but are also prevalent in the southeast.
In Sweden, place names associated with Freyja are even more widespread and diverse. There is a notable concentration in Uppland, where some derive from Freyjuvé and Freyjulundr ("Freyja's Sacred Grove"), suggesting a public cult of Freyja. Other names, such as Frøal and Fröale, include elements related to the Gothic alhs and Old English ealh ("temple"), though these names can also be interpreted differently. Additionally, Freyja’s name appears as a compound with various words for geographic features like fields, meadows, lakes, and natural objects like rocks.
The Freyja epithet Hörn appears in the Swedish place names Härnevi and Järnevi, derived from reconstructed Old Norse names like Hörnar-vé ("Hörn’s vé").
Archaeological Findings and Historical Representations
Around the year 1000, a priestess was buried with great splendour in Hagebyhöga, Östergötland. Her grave included not only her staff but also significant riches such as horses, a wagon, and an Arabic bronze jug. Among the items was a silver pendant depicting a woman wearing a wide necklace. This type of necklace was exclusively worn by prominent women during the Iron Age, and some have interpreted it as Freyja’s necklace, Brísingamen. The pendant itself may represent Freyja.
A phalera (ornamental disc) from the 7th century, discovered in a “warrior’s grave” in what is now Eschwege, northwestern Germany, portrays a female figure with two large braids flanked by two "feline-like" creatures, holding a staff-like object. This figure has been interpreted as Freyja. This imagery may relate to various Type-B bracteates, known as the Fürstenberg type, which are also thought to depict the goddess. These depict "a female figure with a short skirt and looped hair, holding a staff or sceptre in her right hand and a double cross in her left."
A depiction on a wall in Schleswig Cathedral, Schleswig-Holstein (northern Germany), dating to the 12th century, shows a veiled but otherwise naked woman riding a large cat. Beside her, another veiled but naked woman rides a spinning wheel. Due to the iconographic similarities with literary traditions, these figures have been interpreted as representations of Freyja and Frigg, respectively.
Theories
Connection to Frigg and Other Goddesses and Figures
Scholars have frequently associated Freyja with the goddess Frigg due to numerous similarities. The relationship between Freyja and Frigg and the question of their possible earlier identification as a single goddess during the Proto-Germanic period (the Frigg-Freyja origin hypothesis) remains a subject of academic discussion. Regarding the hypothesis of a shared origin, scholar Stephan Grundy states:
“The question of whether Frigg and Freyja might originally have been a single goddess is a difficult one, exacerbated by the sparse evidence for Germanic goddesses before the Viking Age and the differing quality of the sources. The best we can do is to review the arguments for and against their identity and see how well each is supported.”
Unlike the name of Freyja, which is unique to Scandinavia, the name of the goddess Frigg is attested among other Germanic peoples and is reconstructed as Proto-Germanic *Frijjō. However, a similar pan-Germanic attestation for a goddess from whom Freyja descends is absent. Scholars have noted that this could simply be due to a lack of evidence.
In the Völuspá poem from the Poetic Edda, a figure named Gullveig is burned three times and reborn three times. After her third rebirth, she is known as Heiðr. This event is widely regarded as the catalyst for the Æsir-Vanir War. Beginning with scholar Gabriel Turville-Petre, researchers like Rudolf Simek, Andy Orchard, and John Lindow have theorised that Gullveig/Heiðr is the same figure as Freyja and that her involvement with the Æsir somehow led to the events of the war.
Beyond theories linking Freyja to the goddess Frigg, some scholars, such as Hilda Ellis Davidson and Britt-Mari Näsström, have proposed that other goddesses in Norse mythology—such as Gefjon, Gerðr, and Skaði—may represent aspects of Freyja in different roles or eras.
Recipient of the Fallen
Freyja and her afterlife field, Fólkvangr, where she receives half of the fallen warriors, have been associated with the Valkyries. Scholar Britt-Mari Näsström highlights the description in Gylfaginning, where it is said that Freyja "takes half of the slain whenever she rides to battle," and interprets Fólkvangr as "the field of warriors." Näsström notes that, like Odin, Freyja receives slain heroes who die on the battlefield. Her hall, Sessrumnir (translated by Näsström as "filled with many seats"), serves a similar function to Valhalla. She suggests that:
“We must ask why Norse ideas of the afterlife feature two warrior paradises. Perhaps it is a result of different forms of warrior initiation, with some belonging to Óðinn and others to Freyja. These examples suggest Freyja was a goddess of war and even appears as a Valkyrie, literally ‘one who chooses the slain.’”
Siegfried Andres Dobat comments that "the goddess Freyja, in her mythological role as the chooser of half of the fallen warriors for her realm, Fólkvangr, may serve as a mythological archetype for the Valkyries and the dísir."
The Oriental Hypothesis
In 1920, Gustav Neckel drew connections between Freyja and the Phrygian goddess Cybele. According to Neckel, both can be interpreted as fertility goddesses, and additional potential similarities have been noted. Some scholars speculate that Cybele's imagery later influenced Freyja’s iconography, with Cybele’s lion-drawn chariot becoming large cats for Freyja. This observation remained common in studies of Norse religion until the early 1990s. However, Britt-Mari Näsström, in her comprehensive 1995 study of Freyja scholarship, sharply criticizes this conclusion, stating:
“These ‘parallels’ are due to sheer ignorance of Cybele’s characteristics. Scholars have not taken the time to investigate the similarities and differences between the two goddesses to substantiate their arguments for a shared origin.”
Modern Influence
Even after the Christianization of Scandinavia, Freyja was regarded as the Scandinavian counterpart to the Roman Venus. For instance, in Swedish literature, the goddess was associated with romantic love or simply used as a synonym for "lust and potency." In the 18th century, Swedish poet Carl Michael Bellman referred to Stockholm prostitutes as "the children of Freyja" in his Fredman's Epistles. By the 19th century, Swedish Romanticism shifted focus from Freyja's erotic qualities to the image of "the longing goddess, weeping for her husband," as noted by Britt-Mari Näsström.
Freyja is mentioned in the opening stanza of Denmark's national anthem, Der er et yndigt land ("There is a Lovely Land"), written by Danish poet Adam Gottlob Oehlenschläger in 1819. Additionally, Oehlenschläger wrote a comedy, Freyjas alter (1818), and a poem, Freyja's Hall, in which the goddess plays a role.
In Richard Wagner’s 19th-century opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen, Freyja (spelled Freia) is combined with the apple-bearing goddess Iðunn.
Freyja became the subject of numerous artistic works in late 19th- and early 20th-century Northern Europe, including:
- Freyja by H. E. Freund (statue, 1821–1822)
- Freyja Seeking Her Husband (painting, 1852) by Nils Blommér
- Freyja’s Reception Among the Gods (charcoal drawing, 1881) by Carl Ehrenberg
- Freyja (1901) by Carl Emil Doepler Jr.
- Freyja and the Brisingamen (painting, 1862–1932) by J. Doyle Penrose.
Freyja's name was widely used for various purposes in Scandinavia, from sweets to sturdy wagons. Her epithet Vanadís inspired the name of the chemical element vanadium, chosen because of its many colorful compounds.
Since the 1990s, Freyja-derived names have appeared as given names for girls. Norway's Central Statistics Bureau records about 500 women named Frøya (the modern Norwegian spelling of Freyja’s name). Variants, such as Frøydis, also exist.
Freyja appears in several video games, including Age of Mythology (2002), where she is one of nine Norse minor gods players can worship, and God of War (2018), where she plays both a supporting and antagonistic role (referred to as Freya). She is expected to appear in God of War Ragnarök (2022). Freyja is also a playable character in the multiplayer online battle arena game Smite.
Today, many adherents of Ásatrú honour Freyja primarily as a goddess of fertility, abundance, and beauty. A common ritual among modern Freyja devotees involves baking foods associated with love, such as chocolate. Freyja is also invoked as a protective deity, particularly in cases of domestic violence.